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A  Farm  Home 


ELEMENTARY 
AGRICULTURE 


t   i  it^v;,'  '»,  •,'*  ^-'' 
JAMES   S.  iGRIM,    Ph.D. 

KEYSTONE   STATE   NORMAL   SCHOOL,    KUTZTOWN 
PENNSYLVANIA 


"  JVb  other  occupation  opens  so  wide  a  field  for  the 
profitable  and  agreeable  combination  of  labor  and 
cultivated  thought,  as  agriculture." 

—  Abraham  Lincoln. 


i  ■ ,  ']" 


ALLYN   AND   BACON 

Boston  Ncto  gork  Cljicago 


•  ••  ••* 


COPYRIGHT.   1916,  BY 
JAMES  S.  GRIM 


:.:V;•^^ 


••  •  •• 


•  •  •<• . 


Norinooti  ^^rrss 

J.  8.  Gushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.SA. 


X 


PREFACE 

Farming  is  a  business  —  our  chief  business.  But  the  study 
of  agriculture  should  be  not  only  economic ;  it  should  be  edu- 
cational and  social  as  well.  Good  homes,  good  schools,  good 
roads,  must  wait  on  good  business. 

Elementary  Agriculture  is  an  attempt  to  utilize  the  social 
values  of  farm  life  as  educative  material ;  it  aims  to  make 
country  boys  and  girls  love  farm  life,  not  only  because  this 
life  is  worthy  and  wholesome,  but  because  farming,  if  directed 
by  a  trained  mind,  is  a  most  interesting  and  proiitable  calling. 
This  book  places  the  emphasis  on  doing  something  as  a  home 
exercise  or  project,  both  for  its  educational  and  for  its  material 
value ;  it  aims  to  correlate  with  farm  life,  when  possible,  such 
related  subjects  as  arithmetic,  history,  literature,  geography 
and  the  sciences  generally ;  and  it  gives  pointed  suggestions  at 
the  end  of  each  chapter  for  practical  and  productive  work. 

The  social  and  the  economic  treatment,  which  has  been  gen- 
erally ignored,  takes  up  the  first  six  chapters.  But  the  first 
lesson  may  start  with  corn  and  the  seasonal  sequence  of  subjects 
may  follow  in  order.  Most  teachers  prefer  to  select  their  own 
order  of  chapters  to  suit  local  conditions,  a.nd  to  this  plan 
Elementary  Agriculture  is  particularly  well  adapted. 

The  study  of  agriculture  is  wider  than  the  study  of  any  text- 
book. Books  on  agriculture  are  mere  guides  or  instruments  — 
imperfect  at  best ;  they  must  be  judged  by  what  they  lead  to 
rather  than  by  what  they  contain.  They  should  not  be  compila- 
tions of  agricultural  bulletins  written  by  experts.  These  bulle- 
tins are  readily  available,  and  no  textbook  can  take  their  place. 

The  time  has  come  when  we  must  mobilize  our  instructional 
resources  in  agriculture.     They  have  not  been  doing  effective 

iii 


IV  PREFACE 

team  work.  Cooperative  associations,  churches,  schools,  indi- 
viduals, all  have  special  fields  of  activity,  but  none  can  do  its 
best  work  unless  it  works  with  and  borrows  from  all  the  others. 
When  this  idea  is  applied  to  students  of  agriculture  it  means 
that  an  important  part  of  their  education  consists  in  locating 
their  fellow  workers  and  in  cooperating  with  them  freely  and 
wholeheartedly.  Elementary  Agriculture  aims  to  teach  them 
this. 

The  author  gratefully  acknowledges  his  special  obligations 
to  the  following:  Dr.  Harold  G.  Foght,  specialist  in  Rural 
School  Practice,  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  ;  Professor 
C.  H.  Lane,  Chief  Specialist  in  Agricultural  Education,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture ;  Thomas  J.  Mairs,  Professor 
of  Agricultural  Education,  Pennsylvania  State  College ;  L.  H. 
Dennis,  Director  of  Agricultural  Education,  Harrisburg,  Pa. ; 
Professor  Frank  App,  Agronomist,  New  Jersey  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station ;  William  D.  Hurd,  Director  Massachu- 
setts Agricultural  College  ;  Superintendent  E.  M.  Rapp,  Read- 
ing, Pa. ;  Professor  W.  Theo.  Wittman  and  Dr.  Franklin 
Menges  of  the  Pennsylvania  Department  of  Agriculture; 
Albert  E.  Wilkinson,  Professor  of  Horticulture,  Cornell 
University,  New  York ;  Dr.  William  Frear,  Professor  of 
Experimental  Agricultural  Chemistry  and  Vice-Director  of 
Pennsylvania  State  Experiment  Station ;  Arthur  E.  Grant- 
ham, Professor  of  Agronomy,  Delaware  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station ;  Mr.  Charles  S.  Adams,  County  Agriculturist, 
Reading,  Pa. ;  George  H.  Von  Tungeln,  Associate  Professor 
of  Rural   Sociology,   Iowa  Agricultural  College,  and    several 

other  members  of  the  Iowa  Agricultural  College. 

J.  S.  G. 

KoTZTOwN,  Pennstlvania.. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

National  Stockman  and  Farmer. 

357,  368,  373,  374,  375,  378,  389,  395,  397,  400,  401, 402, 
410,  411,  412,  413,  418,  419. 

Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  B.C. 

77,  89,  135,  196,  197,  325,  326,  328,  329,  351,  352,  382, 
433,  435. 

College  of  Agriculture,  Vermont. 

2,  3,  55,  63,  115,  144,  199,  200,  201,  214,  244,  246,  247, 
300. 

College  of  Agriculture,  Pennsylvania. 

107,  129, 138, 140, 141,  276,  370,  384,  425. 

College  of  Agriculture,  Missouri. 

62,86,87,108,399,403,437. 

College  of  Agriculture,  New  Jersey. 
231,  232. 

College  of  Agriculture,  Delaivare. 
372,  426. 

Bureau  of  Vocational  Education,  Harrisburg,  Pa. 
28,  42,  322,  366,  441. 

International  Harvester  Company. 

8  (Copyrighted   1913,   by   Keystone   View   Company), 
20,  26,  34,  67,  81, 110,  123, 142,  143,  281,  288. 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS 

PART   I 
RURAL  LIFE  AND  ACTIVITIES 

CUAI'TEK  PAOB 

I.   The  Farmer  and  Nature 1 

II.  The  People  of  the  Farm 16 

III.  Country  Children 31 

IV.  The  Affairs  of  the  Farm 45 

V.   The  Business  of  Farming 61 

VI.    Rural  Conveniences 77 

PART   II 

THE   SOIL   AND   ITS   IMPROVEMENT 

Vll.  The  Soil 93 

VIII.    Plant  Food .         .         .112 

IX.   Fertilizers 123 

X.  Soil  Management 134 

PART   III 

CROPS 

XI.   The  Nature  and  Work  of  Plants 152 

Xll.   How  New  Plants  are  Started 160 

XIII.  More  about  Starting  New  Plants 171 

XIV.  Making  Better  Plants 190 

XV.   Common  Diseases  of  Crops 208 

XVI.   The  Farm  Garden 221 

XVII.    Keeping  the  Garden  Produce 231 

XVIII.   Potatoes 243 

XIX.   Corn 251 

vii 


vill  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

OIIAtTKR  PAOB 

XX.  Small  Grain  Crops 265 

XXI.  Forage  Crops 276 

XXH.  Weeds 291 

XXIII.  The  Orchard 300 

XXIV.  Timber  Trees 313 

XXV.  Ornamental  Plants 325 

XXVI.    Insects  and  Birds 334 

PART   IV 

STOCK 

XXVII.    Improvement  and  Feeding 355 

XXVllI.   Cattle 366 

XXIX.    Milk  and  Its  Products 382 

XXX.   Horses 395 

XXXI.   Sheep  and  Swine 409 

XXXII.    Poultry 425 

PART  V 

FARM  ECONOMICS 

XXXIII.    Farm  Finance 446 

Appendix  A ,         .         .     467 

Charts  of  United  States  Products. 

Appendix  B 472 

I.    Value  of  Farm  Property. 
II.    Farms  Classified  by  Size. 

III.    Number  of  Domestic  Animals. 
Appendix  C 473 

Agricultural  College  of  the  United  States. 
Appendix  D 474 

Magazine  Articles  on  Agriculture. 
Appendix  E 476 

Constitution  of  Boys'  Pig  Club. 
Appendix  F 478 

Use  of  Farmers'  Bulletins. 
Appendix  G 481 

Report  of  a  Pupil's  Project. 
Appendix  H 487 

Supplies. 
Appendix  I 489 

Farm  Journals. 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIOrRB  PAGE 

1.  A  Farm  Home Frontispiece 

2.  A  Farm  Brook 2 

3.  Elms  at  the  Water's  Brink 3 

4.  A  Pleasant  Farmhouse 4 

5.  A  Quiet  Corner  of  the  Farm 5 

6.  Variation  in  Timothy  Heads 6 

7.  Plowing  along  the  Nile 8 

8.  Head  of  Fox 10 

9.  Rattlesnake;   Copperhead;   Garter  Snake ;  Water  Snake    .         .  10 

10.  The  San  Jose  Scale 11 

11.  Orchard  and  Forest 12 

12.  Nature  in  the  City 12 

13.  Spinning  Flax 16 

14.  Plowing  with  Oxen 18 

15.  Sowing  with  Tractor  and  Drill 18 

16.  Making  Brooms  on  the  Farm 19 

17.  Cyrus  H.  McCormick 20 

18.  Type  of  Barn  a  Century  Old 21 

19.  A  Modern  Homestead .;        .         .  23 

20.  Barn  at  Mt.  Vernon 24 

21.  An  Industrial  Center 26 

22.  Hard  Work 27 

23.  Blacksmithing 28 

24.  The  Best  Farm  Crop 31 

25.  Light  Work  for  Children 32 

26.  Comparative  Values 34 

27.  Tablet  at  Union  Station,  Washingfton 35 

28.  Farm  Pets 37 

29.  Organized  Play 38 

30.  Home  Work 39 

31.  Boy  Scouts  at  Camp 41 

32.  Rope  Splicing 42 

33.  The  Typhoid  Carrier 46 

34.  Caught! 47 

35.  The  Country  School .48 

iz 


X  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

norBR  P40B 

36.  Cooperation  of  Farmers 49 

37.  Club  Members  Working  their  Projects 51 

38.  Poultry  Club  Member 52 

39.  School  Exercise  in  Pruning 53 

40.  An  Agricultural  Fair 54 

41.  An  Orchard  Meeting 55 

42.  Farmers  and  their  Wives       ...                 ....  56 

43.  Tree  Planting  Demonstration 57 

44.  Agricultural  College  Bulletin 59 

45.  Farmers  Shipping  by  Rail 62 

46.  Farmers  Shipping  by  Boat 63 

47.  A  Successful  Farm .64 

48.  A  Bumper  Potato  Crop 65 

49.  Making  Sure  of  Clean  Milk 66 

50.  European  Peasant  Farmers 67 

51.  Intensive  Farming 68 

52.  Small  Fields  and  Tenant  Farms 70 

53.  Farm  Labor 71 

54.  Bad  Farming 72 

55.  A  Windmill  on  the  Farm 77 

56.  Getting  the  Morning  Mail 79 

57.  The  Automobile  on  the  Farm 81 

58.  Stone  Crusher 82 

59.  Models  Illustrating  Road-Building 85 

60.  Effect  of  Narrow  Tires 86 

61.  Effect  of  Broad  Tires 87 

62.  Kitchen  Conveniences 89 

63.  Handy  Farm  Implement 90 

64.  Grain  Elevators 91 

65.  Clod  of  Soil  Magnified 93 

66.  Relative  Sizes  of  Soil  Particles 94 

67.  Clay       .       " 95 

68.  Sand 96 

69.  Bottle  of  Soil  Sifted 97 

70.  Disintegration 98 

71.  How  Roots  Hold  the  Soil 99' 

72  Studying  Soils lOll 

73.  Capillary  Attraction 103. 

74.  Ditching  Machine 107 

75.  Part  of  Irrigation  Dam 108 

76.  Pumping  Water  to  Irrigate  Farm  Lands 110 

77.  Root  Hairs  on  Wheat 112 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xi 

riGUKE  PAOB 

78.  Soil  in  Good  Tilth 113 

79.  Curly  Kale 115 

80.  Nodules  on  Bean  Roots 116 

81.  Sweet  Clover  on  Shallow  Limestone  Soil 119 

82.  Spreading  Manure 123 

83.  Proper  Care  of  Manure 125 

84.  A  Lime  Kiln 126 

85.  Preparing  Stone  Lime 128 

86.  A  Pile  of  Slacked  Lime 129 

87.  Effect  of  Tillage 135 

88.  A  School  Garden 137 

89.  Spreading  Lime 138 

90.  The  Common  Plow 140 

91.  The  Spaulding  Plow 141 

92.  Traction  Plow  and  Disk  Harrow .142 

93.  Furrows  Properly  Turned 143 

94.  Spring-Tooth  Harrow 144 

95.  Extension  Harrow 145 

96.  Timothy  in  Bloom 153 

97.  Plant  Cells 155 

98.  Chlorophyll  Bodies  of  a  Leaf 157 

99.  Millet  Seed 160 

100.  The  Life  Story  of  a  Pear 161 

101.  Staminate  Flowers  and  Pollen  of  Corn  Plant      .         .         .         .162 

102.  Corn  Tassel 163 

103.  Corn  Silk 164 

104.  Effect  of  Poor  Pollination 165 

105.  Buckwheat  Plant  in  Blossom 166 

106.  Seeds  and  Flowers  of  the  Potato  Plant 168 

107.  Sections  of  Corn  Kernels 171 

108.  Poor  Alfalfa  Seed 1 72 

109.  Good  Alfalfa  Seed '       .         .174 

no.   Alfalfa  Seeds  after  Testing 174 

111.  Roots  of  Wheat  Seedlings 175 

112.  Buds  in  the  Axils  of  Leaves 177 

113.  Breathing  Pores  of  a  Leaf 178 

114.  Geranium  Cutting 180 

115.  Rose  Cuttings 181 

116.  Stolons  of  White  Clover 183 

1 1 7.  Strawberry  Runners 1 83 

118.  Cleft  Grafting 184 

119.  Tongue  Grafting 185 


XU  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

riauEs  PAOE 

120.  Budding 186 

121.  Grafting  Exercise 187 

122.  Luther  Burbank 191 

123.  Variation  in  Plant  Breeding 193 

124.  Corn  Bagged 195 

125.  Prize  Corn 196 

126.  Tomatoes -197 

127.  Niagara  Grapes 199 

128.  Improved  Blackberry 200 

129.  Blackberry  Field 201 

130.  Improved  Crab  Apple 203 

131.  Compound  Microscope 209 

132.  Bacteria 210 

133.  Plum  Rot 210 

134.  Peach  Rot 211 

135.  Shot-Hole  Fungus  on  Apple  Leaves 212 

136.  Anthracnose  on  Bean  Pod 213 

137.  Potato  Blight 214 

138.  Clean  and  Smutted  Oats 215 

139.  Corn  Smut 216 

140.  Black  Knot  on  Plum  Twigs 217 

141.  A  Wood-Destroying  Fungus 217 

142.  A  Farm  Garden 221 

143.  Handy  Garden  Tools 222 

144.  Asparagus  Plot 222 

145.  Bush  Beans  Ready  to  Cover 223 

146.  Hill  of  Sweet  Corn 223 

147.  Bantam  Sweet  Corn 224 

148.  Bean  Plant 226 

149.  Making  a  Hot-Bed 227 

150.  A  Bean  Project 227 

151.  Celery 228 

152.  Kitchen  Canning 231 

153.  Home  Canning  Outfit 232 

154.  Yeast .'        .        .  233 

155.  Molds 233 

156.  Dried  Corn 234 

157.  Canned  Corn 235 

158.  Dried  Peaches 236 

159.  Dried  Apricots 237 

160.  Dried  Apples 238 

161.  Meeting  of  a  Tomato  Canning  Club 240 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xiii 

riOtTBB  PACK 

162.  Young  Potato  Plant 243 

163.  Covering  Potatoes  with  a  Two-Winged  Plow      ....  244 

164.  Cultivating  Potatoes 245 

165.  Class  Selecting  Seed  Potatoes 246 

166.  Potato  Digger 247 

167.  A  Good  Potato  Crop 248 

168.  Sweet  Potatoes 249 

169.  Good  and  Bad  Seed 252 

170.  Class  Selecting  Seed  Corn  .        . 253 

171.  The  "  Rag  Doll"  Test 254 

172.  Removing  Seed  for  Testing 255 

173.  Box  Method  of  Testing  Seed 256 

174.  Starting  a  Corn  Variety  Test 257 

175.  Six  Types  of  Corn 258 

176.  Result  of  not  Testing  Seed 260 

177.  Wheat  Grains 265 

178.  Threshing  Wheat 266 

179.  A  Wheat  Variety  Test 268 

180.  Oats  —  Natural  Size 269 

181.  Oats  as  Planted  in  Drills      .        * 270 

182.  Buckwheat  —  Natural  Size 271 

183.  Buckwheat  Planted  in  Drills 271 

184.  Barley  Grains 272 

185.  Rye  Grains 273 

186.  Cutting  Forage 276 

187.  A  Typical  Meadow 277 

188.  Hay  Tedder  at  Work 277 

189.  Red  Top 278 

190.  Timothy  Seed 279 

191.  Seed  of  Kentucky  Blue  Grass 280 

192.  Hay  Loader 281 

193.  The  Alfalfa  Plant 282 

194.  Red  Clover 283 

195.  Red  Clover  Seed.     Natural  Size 283 

196.  Dodder,  a  Parasite  on  Clover 284 

197.  Alsike  Clover 285 

198.  Soy  Beans 286 

199.  Building  a  Cheap  Silo  ...  286 

200.  Cow  Peas 287 

201.  A  Cement  Silo 288 

202.  Joe  Pye  Weeds 29 1 

203.  Ragweed 292 


XIV  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

riOUBB  PAOR 

204.  Wild  Carrot 293 

205.  Moth  Mullein 294 

206.  Milkweed 295 

207.  Fennel 295 

208.  Two  Kinds  of  Pigweed 296 

209.  Canada  Thistle 296 

210.  Plantain 297 

211.  Tumble  Grass 298 

212.  Chicory 299 

213.  Apple  Orchard  in  Winter 300 

214.  An  Old  Orchard 301 

215.  Grape  Twigs 302 

216.  Peach  Twigs 303 

217.  Apple  Shoots 304 

218.  Pruning  Peach  Trees 305 

219.  Early  Bearer 306 

220.  Broken  Crotch 306 

221.  Bad  Pruning 307 

222.  Dehorned  Apple  Tree 308 

223.  An  Apple  Show 309 

224.  Harvesting  Peaches 309 

225.  Orchard  Tools 310 

226.  An  Oak  in  an  Open  Field 313 

227.  An  Elm  in  an  Open  Field 314 

228.  A  Mixed  Stand  of  Timber 315 

229.  A  Wind-Break 316 

230.  Cross  Section  of  Okk 317 

231.  Cross  Section  of  Norway  Spruce 318 

232.  A  Rail  Fence 320 

233.  Injury  to  Shade  Tree 321 

234.  A  Lesson  in  Forestry 322 

235.  Landscape  Gardening 325 

236.  An  Attractive  Country  Home 326 

237.  English  Style  of  Planting 328 

238.  Italian  Style  of  Planting 329 

239.  Hollyhocks 330 

240.  Starting  Rose  Cuttings 331 

241.  A  Flower  Project 332 

242.  Spraying  Apple  Trees 334 

243.  Hand  Sprayer 335 

244.  A  Method  of  Mounting  Insects 335 

245.  Wheat  Partly  Destroyed  by  the  Hessian  Fly      ...        .  336 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  XV 

PIOITRE  PAOa 

246.  Angoumois  Grain  Moths  and  Grain  Weevils       ....  336 

247.  Potato  Beetle 337 

248.  Insects  on  Leaves 338 

249.  Toads  Eating  Caterpillars 339 

250.  Tent  Caterpillars 340 

251.  Work  of  Walnut  Caterpillars 341 

252.  Shot-Hole  Borer 342 

253.  Work  of  the  San  Jose  Scale        . 343 

254.  Scale  Parasite 344 

255.  Work  of  the  Scale  Parasite 344 

256.  The  Coddling  Moth 346 

257.  Ichneumon  Flies .         .  347 

258.  Bee  Hives  in  an  Orchard 349 

259.  Bird  Boxes 350 

260.  Red-Headed  Woodpeckers 351 

261.  The  Crow 352 

262.  A  Dairy  Herd 355 

263.  A  Holstein  Calf '.357 

,  264.    Beef  Cattle  in  Pasture 359 

265.  An  Elaborate  Dairy  Barn 360 

266.  Live  Stock  Judging 366 

267.  Hereford  Cow 368 

268.  Shorthorn  Bull 369 

269.  Herefords  at  Pasture 369 

270.  Aberdeen  Angus  Bull 370 

271.  Raising  a  Holstein  Calf 371 

272.  Jersey  Cows 372 

273.  Guernsey  Cow     ..........  373 

274.  Ayrshire  Cow 374 

275.  Holstein  Cow 375 

276.  Interior  of  Dairy  Barn ,         .  378 

277.  Milk  Pails 382 

278.  Butter  Making  Outfit 384 

279.  Testing  Milk.     Babcock  Tester 385 

280.  A  Dirty  Cow 388 

281.  A  Clean  Cow 389 

282.  Milk  from  the  Clean  Cow 390 

283.  Milk  from  the  Dirty  Cow 390 

284.  Germs  of  the  Dairy 39 1 

285.  Blooded  Saddle  Mare 395 

286.  Horse  Barn 396 

287.  Percheron  Stallion 397 


XVI  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

riOFRS  PA^ 

288.  Percheron  Brood  Mares 399 

289.  Clydesdale  Stallion 400 

290.  Belgian  Stallion 401 

291.  Shire  Stallion 402 

292.  Pair  of  Mules 403 

293.  Raising  a  Colt 405 

294.  A  Flock  of  Sheep 409 

295.  Hampshire 410 

296.  Shropshire 411 

297.  Merino 412 

298.  Cheviots 413 

299.  Sheep  Feeding  in  Rape  Field 415 

300.  Pigs  Feeding  on  Alfalfa      . 417 

XI.  Berkshire 418 

302.  Duroc-Jersey 419 

303.  Chester  White  Pig  in  Unattractive  Pen 421 

304.  Bacon  and  Ham 422 

305.  A  Poultry  Project 425 

306.  White  Leghorn 426 

307.  Minorca  Cock 427 

308.  Egg  Yields 428 

309.  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  Hen 428 

310.  Buff-Orpington 429 

311.  White  Wyandottes 430 

312.  Rhode  Island  Reds 432 

313.  Brahma  Cock  and  Hen 433 

314.  A  Setting  of  Eggs 434 

315.  Poultry  Feed 434 

316.  Feeding  the  Chickens 435 

317.  Small  Chicken  House 436 

318.  Putting  Chicks  in  the  Brooder 437 

319.  A  Colony  Hen-House 438 

320.  Modern  Poultry  House  and  Yard 440 

321.  High  School  Boys  Preparing  for  the  Poultry  Show    .  441 

322.  Turkey 442 

323.  Successful  Farming  Requires  Capital 448 

324.  Transportation 450 

325.  Farmers'  Bank 456 


ELEMENTARY   AGRICULTURE 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

PART   I 
RURAL   LIFE   AND  ACTIVITIES 

CHAPTER   I 

THE  FAKMER  AND  NATURE 


Let  iN'ature  be  your  teacher.  —  Wordsworth. 


1.  The  New  Earth.  —  Everything  we  see  is  subject  to 
constant  change.  We  are  told  that  our  bodies  change 
completely  once  every  seven  years.  Orchards  that  are 
white  with  blossoms  in  May  are  laden  with  fruit  in  Octo- 
ber. Meadows  that  are  brown  in  autumn  are  to  be  car- 
peted in  spring  with  a  rich  green.  Through  all  the  world, 
change  is  always  going  on.  Many  of  the  changes  can  be 
detected  only  by  comparisons  from  week  to  week  or  month 
t©  month  ;  and  still  others  take  place  so  slowly  that  even 
a  lifetime  is  not  long  enough  to  see  them.  There  may  be 
a  hill  near  your  home.  Can  any  one  doubt,  on  seeing 
the  muddy  water  running  from  its  side,  that  in  time, 
perhaps  in  a  thousand  or  maybe  in  a  million  years,  a  large 
part  of  the  hill  will  be  carried  away  ? 

Thus,  a  new  earth  is  forming  every  day.  It  is  formed 
out  of  the  old  earth  which,  more  or  less  rapidly,  is  being 
made  over.  New  plants  and  animals  and  new  particles 
of  soil  are  ever  taking  the  place  of  the  old  ones.     Just  as 

1 


2  THE  FARMER  AND  NATURE 

our  bodies  are  constantly  losing  old  matter  and  building 
up  new  matter,  so  are  our  fields,  crops,  stock,  and  lands. 
One  of  the  never-ending  joys  that  come  to  the  farmer  is 


A  Farm  Brook. 

In  every  brook  are  forces  which  are  constantly  changing  the 
face  of  nature. 

the  novelty  of  continually  having  a  new  earth  with  which 
to  work. 

2.  Things  that  Abide.  —  There  are  invisible  things  in 
nature,  however,  that  never  change.  These  invisible 
changeless  things  we  cdW  forces  of  nature.  The  snow  falls 
and  warms  the  soil,  and  then  melts  and  runs  away  as 
water.  That  is,  moisture  changes  its  form  ;  but  the  in- 
visible forces  that  formed  the  snow  in  the  sky,  and  that 
caused  it  to  fall  and  then  melt,  do  not  change.  They  abide, 
and  are  always  ready  to  work  when  conditions  are  favorable. 
The  forces  of  nature  are  working  to-day  exactly  as  they 
did  when  the  world  was  young,  and  they  will  continue  to 
work  forever,  as  far  as  human  knowledge  goes,  precisely 
as  we  find  them  working  to-day. 


NATURAL   FORCES   ON   THE  FABM 


Elms  at  the  Water's  Brink. 

The  scene  changes  from  day  to  day,  but  the  forces  which  make 
it  are  eternal. 

3.  Natural  forces  at  work  on  the  farm  are  of  three  kinds, 
—  the  physical,  the  biological,  and  the  chemical  forces. 

a.  A  dashing  rain  falls  on  the  corn  field.  The  surface 
of  the  soil  is  thus  compacted  ;  its  particles  are  pressed 
tightly  together.  The  farmer  knows  that  unless  this 
crust  is  broken  up  the  soil  will  lose  a  great  deal  of  water 


4  THE  FARMER  AND  NATURE 

by  evaporation,  and  the  corn  will  suffer  on  that  account. 
This  rapid  evaporation  through  a  crusted  soil  is  due  to  a 
physical  force  or  principle  (capillary  attraction),  about 
which  more  will  be  learned  in  Chapter  VII.  To  prevent 
too  rapid  a  loss  of  moisture  the  farmer  cultivates,  or  breaks 


A  Pleasant  Farmhouse. 
Nature  adds  charm  to  the  farmer's  home. 

up,  the  crust,  because  this  principle  acts  more  slowly  in  a 
loose  soil. 

h.  A  seed  drops  into  the  soil ;  it  seems  lifeless.  It 
will  remain  apparently  as  lifeless  as  a  pebble  unless  heat, 
moisture,  and  air  are  applied  to  it.  In  the  soil,  in  a  good 
season,  it  finds  these  three  things,  and  it  sprouts.  Sprout- 
ing is  growth,  and  growth  is  a  biological  principle. 

c.  A  farmer  spreads  lime  on  the  land ;  the  lime 
"sweetens"  the  soil,  and  thus  enables  certain  plants  to 
thrive  better.  This  work  of  lime  illustrates  a  chemical 
principle.  We  shall  explain  these  principles  more  in 
detail  in  later  chapters. 


THE  FIRST  FARMER 


4.  Natural  Principles  as  Tools.  —  Now  the  loss  of  water 
from  the  surface  of  the  corn  field,  the  sprouting  of  the 
seed,  and  the  action  of  lime,  like  all  the  principles  or 
forces  of  nature,  act  continuously  and  are  uniform  under 
the  same  conditions.  Man  may  interfere  with  them  and 
prevent  their  operation  here  and  there  hy  changing  the 
conditions;  but  he  cannot  destroy  the  principles  them- 
selves.    We  can  regulate  the  loss  of  field  water,  to  a  great 


A  Quiet  Corner  of  the  Farm. 

extent,  by  cultivation  and  by  other  means  ;  we  can  hasten 
the  growth  of  seeds,  by  giving  careful  attention  to  their 
needs  ;  and  we  can  modify  the  action  of  lime  in  a  field, 
by  growing  certain  crops :  but  the  principles  themselves 
remain  unchanged.  Thus  we  may  think  of  these  forces  as 
ivivisible  tools  with  which  the  farmer  must  learn  to  work. 
He  must  learn  to  regulate  the  force  of  evaporation  much 
as  he  learns  to  control  a  plow. 

5.  The  first  farmer  was  the  first  man  who  became  con- 
scious  of   the   fact   that   there  were   plant  forms  which 


THE  FARMER  AND  NATURE 


changed  from  time  to  time,  and  that  there  were  forces 
which  caused  these  changes,  but  which  did  not  themselves 
change.  Then  he  began  to  work  upon  these  forms 
through  these  forces.     Let  us  say  that  he  noticed  a  sort 

of  grass  growing  in  an 
open  space  of  the  forest. 
We  may  suppose  that 
this  was  wheat  in  its 
wild  state.  The  man 
discovered  that  its  seed 
was  good  to  eat.  But 
the  good  plant  died. 
The  man  planted  some 
seeds  of  it,  however,  and 
thus  obtained  another 
plant  nearly  like  the  first 
one.  Then  he  planted 
seeds  from  the  second 
plant,  and  from  the 
third,  and  so  on,  and 
always  obtained  plant 
after  plant  that  differed 
little  from  the  first  one 
which  he  found  in  the 
forest. 

Thus  this  first  farmer 
discovered  two  things  : 
namely,  a  form  of  plant 
structure  which  perished,  and  a.  force  which  did  not  perish. 
The  form  of  the  wheat  plant  he  could  see,  and,  in  part 
at  least,  could  easily  understand.  But  he  saw  also,  dimly, 
that  back  of  that  grass  form,  and  of  every  form,  like  a 
tree  or  a  horse,  lies  a  hidden  principle  of  growth  that 
carves  out,  as  it  were,  the  wheat  or  the  tree  or  the  horse 


Variation  in  Timothy  Heads. 

These  heads  of  timothy  all  grew  in 
the  same  square  yard.  Selecting  the 
best  is  the  first  step  in  improvement. 


IMPROVING  ON  NATURE  1 

into  its  shape.  He  saw  that,  because  of  this  force,  like 
produces  like,  and  the  new  plant  resembles  the  old  one 
from  whose  seed  it  springs.  This  force  was  invisible. 
He  could  not  understand  it  as  readily  as  he  could  the 
plant  form. 

6.  Our  Trust  in  Natural  Forces.  —  Only  by  slow  steps  have 
men  learned  to  trust  the  regular  action  of  these  natural 
forces.  There  is  a  force,  we  have  just  said,  that  made  the 
second  and  third  wheat  plants  resemble  the  first  one.  We 
now  call  that  force  by  the  name  heredity,  and  we  are  still 
learning  much  about  its  workings.  We  know  surely,  how- 
ever, that,  like  all  the  forces  of  nature,  heredity  works 
constantly  and  uniformly  under  like  conditions.  But  the 
first  farmers,  for  thousands  of  years,  thought  that  it  was  a 
goddess,  and  that  it  must  be  worshiped  with  prayer  and 
sacrifices,  or  it  might  cease  to  work  for  the  good  of  men. 

It  was  natural  for  these  first  farmers  to  distrust  the  un- 
seen forces  —  "  the  invisible  tools  "  —  with  which  they  had 
to  work,  and  to  feel  that  these  forces  might  stop  working 
at  any  time  as  a  punishment  to  men.  The  strange  thing 
is  that  in  our  own  day  of  so  much  knowledge,  some  farmers 
have  made  scant  progress  toward  a  proper  outlook  on 
nature.  Such  men  still  cling  to  old  superstitions,  and  are 
particular  to  plant  seed  according  to  the  "  signs  "  of  the 
almanac.  Wise  men  trust  to  the  regularity  of  natural 
forces. 

7.  Why  Farmers  Have  Sought  to  Improve  on  Nature.  —  We 
know  little  that  is  really  definite  about  the  farmers  of 
the  earliest  times.  It  is  quite  probable  that  the  first 
men  obtained  their  food  and  clothing  from  wild  ani- 
mals and  wild  plants.  If  the  streams,  hunting  grounds, 
wild  cereals,  wild  fruits,  and  wild  roots  had  satisfied  men's 
needs,  we  should  not  have  the  modern  cattle,  fruit,  grains,  or 
other  good  things  of  the  farm  of  to-day.     But  the  first  men 


8 


THE  FARMER  AND  NATURE 


found  it  hard  to  live  at  all.  Especially  did  many  children 
die  from  lack  of  proper  food  and  clothing.  To  some  minds 
it  became  a  problem  to  supply  the  food  and  clothing  needed. 
The  first  farmer  who  stirred  a  plot  of  ground  with  a  crooked 
stick  and  then  sowed  there  the  seed  of  a  wild  wheat  plant 
—  instead  of  eating:  it  —  made  a  wonderful  advance.     It 


Plowing  along  the  Nile. 
Early  farmers  probably  used  some  such  simple  tools. 

was  no  longer  necessary  to  depend  wholly  on  wild  crops 
for  food. 

It  had  been  noticed  tliat  the  seeds  of  certain  wild 
plants  were  covered  with  strong  fibers,  and  women  had 
sometimes  woven  these  fibers  together  for  clothing.  At 
last  a  few  of  these  hairy  seeds  were  planted  in  a  cultivated 
plot.     This  was  the  first  cotton  field. 


USEFULNESS    IN    NATURE  9 

At  some  later  time,  a  sharp  eye  noticed  that  if  insects 
visited  the  cotton  blossom,  the  seed  was  improved.  Here 
was  a  suggestion  of  another  great  principle,  —  the  principle 
of  improvement  through  crosses  (Chapter  XIII). 

So,  too,  the  early  horse  was  weak  in  body  and  slow  of 
foot.  Because  of  their  needs,  the  early  farmers  improved 
it,  as  they  improved  the  wild  cow  and  the  wild  apple  and 
the  wild  wheat,  from  a  condition  of  little  usefulness  to  a 
condition  of  greater  and  greater  usefulness. 

The  betterment  of  plants,  animals,  and  farm  machinery 
rank  among  the  greatest  achievements  of  the  human  race; 
but  this  betterment  is  the  result  of  human  needs.  The 
common  things  of  the  modern  farm  have  been  the  products 
of  yearnings  for  greater  comfort.  This  aspiration  has 
shown  men  how  to  transform  the  crooked  stick  with  which 
the  first  farmer  stirred  the  ground  into  the  spade,  the  plow, 
the  gang  plow,  the  tractor  plow. 

In  this  betterment  there  have  been  four  distinct  stages.  First,  man 
used  nature  as  he  found  her  wild.  Then  he  copied  nature  in  her  re- 
production of  like  from  like,  as  when  he  sowed  the  wheat,  hoping  only 
to  receive  a  grain  like  the  wild  grain.  Then  he  observed  how  nature 
sometimes  made  improvements,  and  he  copied  those  methods;  and 
finally  he  experimented  to  find  how  to  make  improvements  faster  than 
nature  alone  could  make  them.    This  last  step  is  comparatively  modern. 

8.  Does  Everything  in  Nature  Have  a  Use?  — Every  object 
exerts  influence  on  other  objects,  and  we  cannot  foresee  all 
the  consequences  from  the  destruction  of  apparently  use- 
less things.  Brook  snails  used  to  be  thought  useless  ;  but 
now  we  know  that  they  keep  the  water  sweet  by  eating 
the  germs  in  it,  and  also  that  they  contribute  to  the  plu- 
mage of  a  gorgeous  waterfowl  that  feeds  upon  them. 
Throughout  nature  the  lower  life  contributes  to  the 
higher  life. 

In  the  present   imperfect   state  of   our  knowledge  we 


10 


THE  FARMER  AND  NATURE 


Head  of  Fox. 

Foxes  serve  a  useful  purpose  in  de- 
stroying animals,  such  as  rabbits,  that 
bark  young  trees  and  eat  vegetables. 


ought  to  be  very  cautious  in  deciding  that  any  plant  or 

animal  is  more  harmful  than  useful.     We  do  feel  justified 

in  exterminating  such  plants  as  the  poison  ivy,  quack- 
grass,  and  the  Canada 
thistle,  and  such  animals 
as  wolves,  rattlesnakes, 
and  disease-bearing  mos- 
quitoes and  flies.  On 
the  other  hand,  the 
farmer  is  just  beginning 
to  recognize  some  of  his 
best  friends  in  nature. 

Many  of  these  friends 
long  escaped  notice  be- 
cause of  their  micro- 
scopic size.  There  lives 
in  the  soil  a  low  form 

of  life  which  we  call  bacteria.     These  microscopic  bacteria 

enrich  the  soil  by  breaking  down  the  complex  bodies  of 

larger    animals    and 

plants  and  making  them 

over    into    plant    food. 

Fertile  soil  teems  with 

them.       The    role    they 

play  has  been  the  subject 

of   much  recent  study. 

It  has  been  learned,  for 

instance,  that  alfalfa  will 

not   usually    grow   well 

in  a  new  district  until 

the  right  kinds  of  bac- 

,      .      ,  1  11  1 ,  Rattlesnake  ;    2,  Copperhead  ; 

teria   have    been    placed         3   ^^^^^^  snake:  4.  Water  Snake. 

in  the  soil.      These  small       gnakes  render  important  service  by  de- 
agents,  our  invisible  CO-  stroying  vermin,  mice,  and  so  on. 


USES   OF  BEAUTY 


11 


workers,  are  in  large  measure  responsible  for  soil  fertility) 
and  so  for  our  very  lives. 

Other  allies  of  man  long  remained  unrecognized,  not 
because  they  were  small,  but  because  no  competent  scien- 
tist had  taken  the  trouble  to  investigate  them.  Certain 
insects  belong  to  this  class.  To  it  belong  also  plants  and 
animals  of  diverse  groups.  The  following  is  a  common 
example  of  this.  ITastened 
to  the  window  panes  of  the 
house  or  stable,  during  the 
fall,  many  dead  flies  may 
often  be  noticed.  Growing 
out  of  each  fly  there  is  prob- 
ably a  fluffy  growth,  —  the 
work  of  a  beneficial  fungus. 
For  many  years  people  did 
not  know  why  flies  died  in 
this  manner.  They  did  not 
recognize  the  agent  that 
kills  the  flies. 

Other  pests  are  often 
destroyed  in  some  such 
manner,  though  no  one  can 
yet  name  the  particular 
agent  that  wrought  the 
blessing.  No  doubt,  many  forms  of  life  now  thought 
useless  will  be  proved  to  be  helpful  to  man.  There  are 
few  fields  of  human  life  where  the  highest  scientific  knowl- 
edge can  play  a  more  useful  part  than  in  agriculture. 
The  best  education  is  not  thrown  away  upon  the  farmer. 

9.  Uses  of  Beauty.  —  Moreover,  it  is  narrow  for  the 
farmer  to  look  upon  nature  only  from  the  viewpoint  of 
his  purse.  "Man  shall  not  live  by  bread  alone."  We 
ought  to  feel  that  we  are  made  "  brothers  to  the  insensible 


The  San  Jose  Scale. 

This  pest  has  destroyed  thousands 

of  orchards. 


12 


THE  FARMER  AND  NATURE 


Orchard  and  Forest. 


clod  which  tlie  rude  swain  turns  with  his  sliare  and  treads 
upon."  The  study  of  the  clod,  the  star,  the  wayside  flower, 
enlarges  the  mind  and  helps  to  give  us  a  vision  of  the  vast 
forces  that  work  harmoniously  throughout  the  universe. 


Nature  in  the  City. 


USES  OF  BEAUTY  18 

And  the  farmer  is  poor  indeed  if  the  odor  of  clay  is  so 
fixed  in  his  nostrils  as  to  shut  out  the  fragrance  of  flowers. 
The  genius  of  man  never  invented  a  moving-picture  out- 
fit to  show  such  splendors  as  may  be  seen  in  the  glow  of 
the  dying  day.  Or,  to  take  a  homely  scene,  —  the  cow 
stands  in  a  brook  beneath  a  spreading  tree ;  beyond 
stretches  a  meadow,  or  a  field  of  corn ;  at  a  distance  loom 
the  farm  buildings.  A  painting  of  this  scene  may  bring 
fame  and  fortune  to  the  artist.  Wandering  crowds  may 
gather  in  a  gallery  to  admire  tlie  colored  canvas.  But 
the  country  child  may  feast  his  eyes  on  the  real  scene  the 
long  seasons  through.  The  farmer,  in  the  following  poem 
of  Helen  Hunt  Jackson,  would  have  been  the  richer  if 
he  had  lifted  his  eyes  to  see  what  the  poet  saw : 

"  Along  Ancona's  ^  hills  the  shimmering  heat, 
A  tropic  tide  of  air,  with  ebb  and  flow, 
Bathes  all  the  fields  of  wheat  until  they  glow 
Like  seas  of  green  which  toss  and  beat 
About  the  vines.^     The  poppies,^  lithe  and  fleet, 
Seem  running,  fiery  torchmen,  to  and  fro 
To  mark  the  shore.     The  farmer  does  not  know 
That  they  are  there.     He  walks  with  heavy  feet, 
Counting  the  bread  and  wine  of  autumn's  store  ; 
But  I,  —  I  smile  to  think  that  days  remain. 
Perchance,  to  me,  when  the  bread  be  sweet  no  more. 
And  red  wine  warm  the  heart  in  vain, 
I  shall  be  glad,  remembering  how  the  fleet 
Lithe  poppies  ran  like  torchmen  through  the  wheat." 


1  Ancona  is  a  beautiful  town  in  Italy  on  the  Adriatic. 

2  Grapes  and  grain  are  the  two  principal  products  of  the  district. 

8  The  wild  European  poppy  is  a  tall,  wonderfully  graceful,  deep  red,  bell- 
shaped  flower,  growing  often  in  great  numbers  along  the  margins  of  grain 
fields. 


14  THE  FARMER  AND  NATURE 

Practical  Questions 

1.  Name  a  few  changes  in  nature  which  you  have  noticed. 
2.  How  is  some  farm  you  know  different  from  what  it  was  a  year 
ago?  3.  Name  three  natural  principles  with  which  the  farmer  must 
work.     4.    In  what  way  can  a  form  be  distinguished  from  a  principle? 

5.  In  what  way  can  a  natural  principle  be  spoken  of  as  a  farm  tool? 

6.  Why  have  farmers  sought  to  improve  on  nature?  7.  In  what 
way  do  wild  plants  differ  from  cultivated  plants?  8.  Which  is  the 
more  beautiful,  a  good  painting  of  a  farm  scene  or  the  scene  itself? 
9.  Can  you  think  of  anything  in  nature  that  is  not  useful  to  the 
farmer  ? 

Home  Exercises 

1.  In  beginning  the  study  of  Farm  Life  we  should  recognize  "the 
new  earth,"  or  the  constant  changes  everywhere  at  work.  Let  us 
study  some  of  these  changes  by  making  use  of  our  local  history  and 
geograpiiy.  Ask  your  father  or  grandfather  to  relate  how  people 
farmed  when  he  was  a  boy.  Inquire  as  to  what  farm  improvements 
were  made  during  the  last  fifty  years.  When  was  the  first  reaper 
used  in  the  neighborhood?  The  first  Babcock  tester?  The  first 
cream  separator?  The  first  gasolene  engine?  Inquire  into  the  his- 
tory of  the  local  wood  lots.  How  long  ago  were  trees  growing  in 
fields  which  are  now  cleared  and  cultivated?  Do  the  streams  carry 
as  much  water  as  formerly?  Are  the  numbers  of  horses,  cows,  sheep, 
and  pigs  increasing? 

By  sending  a  card  to  your  state  capital,  much  interesting  local 
information  can  be  obtained.  Perhaps  the  assessor  can  also  aid  you. 
Get  a  knowledge  of  the  local  farm  resources  past  and  present.  Write 
a  report  on  what  you  have  learned. 

2.  Look  for  any  farm  plant,  like  com,  wheat,  potatoes,  or  onions, 
that  may  be  found  growing  wild.  Examine  such  plants  carefully 
and  tell  in  what  way  they  differ  from  like  plants  properly  cared  for 
by  man. 

Suggestions 

1.  Pupils  raised  on  a  farm  have  usually  a  considerable  body  of 
first-hand  knowledge  of  natural  objects.  Teachers  should  not  ignore 
this  knowledge,  but  should  correct  it  and  seek  to  organize  it. 

2.  Agriculture  is  a  study  in  which  there  must  be  continually  a 
direct  contact  with  real  and  vital  things.     The  teacher  will  not  stop 


REFERENCES  15 


The  Farm  and  the  Market. 

with  the  book  answers  to  questions,  but  will  assign  other  questions 
that  can  be  answered  only  from  material  at  school  or  at  home. 
Whenever  possible  the  question  should  be  in  the  form  of  a  problem 
requiring  practical  work  before  it  can  be  answered. 

3.  Some  member  of  the  class  may  be  given  a  special  topic,  such  as 
"  the  conflict  between  the  farmer  and  nature."  Farmers  battling 
against  weeds,  pests,  floods,  droughts,  storms,  and  diseases  are  sug- 
gestive points.  The  discussion  of  a  topic  should  be  entirely  original 
—  the  result  of  direct  observation. 

4.  In  order  to  save  time  and  enable  pupils  to  get  the  clearest  possible 
ideas  on  vital  problems,  it  is  advisable  to  correlate  related  subjects  to 
agriculture.  We  must  remember  that  we  are  not  teaching  certain 
school  subjects  merely,  but  are  training  future  citizens  :  Subject  matter 
organized  on  a  rather  artificial  basis  at  best  and  placed  into  certain 
pigeon  holes  we  call  textbooks  can  always  be  reenforced  and  made 
dynamic  if  approached  from  several  different  points  of  view  in  the 
same  discussion  period.  The  Agricultural  Educational  Monthly, 
published  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  sent 
free  to  all  who  desire  it,  has  been  giving  detailed  directions  on  how 
best  to  connect  with  agriculture  related  school  subjects  such  as  his- 
tory, literature,  geography,  botany,  geology,  and  chemistry. 

References 

Handbook  of  Nature  Study.     Comstock. 
Nature  Study  and  Life.     Hodge. 
Animals  and  Man.     Kellogg. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE   PEOPLE  OF   THE  FAEM 


The  Country  wins  me  still; 
I  never  framed  a  wish,  or  formed  a  plan 
That  flattered  m,e  with  Jwpe  of  earthly  bliss, 
But  th^re  I  laid  the  scene.  —  Cowper. 


10.  Why  Study  about  the  Farm  People.  —  In  the  study  of 
agriculture  we  are  especi.illy  interested  in  the  people  who 
follow  farming  as  an  occupation.  The  happiness,  the 
well-being,  and  the  mode  of  living  of  the  people  themselves 
are  of  more  vital  concern  than  the  work  they  do.     Better 


m 

1 

Spinning  Flax. 

Formerly  a  part  of  farm  work. 

10 


CHANGES  IN  POPULATION 


17 


farming  is  worth  while  only  if  it  bears  fruit  in  better  liv- 
ing. It  is  needful,  therefore,  to  study  farm  life  and  farm 
business,  just  as  it  is  needful  to  study  flowers,  fruits  and 
farm  stock. 

11.  Population. — There  are  more  than  100,000,000 
people  living  in  the  United  States.  These  people  may  be 
divided  into  two  classes,  —  the  city  dwellers  and  the  coun- 
try dwellers.  Since  1900  the  United  States  Census  Bureau 
regards  all  districts  having  a  population  of  2500  or  more 
as  cities.  The  following  table  from  the  Census  Reports 
shows  the  percentage  of  our  population  in  country  and 
in  city  at  different  periods  : 


1790 

1890 

1900 

1910 

Country    .... 
City 

96.7 
3.3 

63.9 
33.1 

69.5 
40.5 

53.7 
46.3 

That  is,  when  Washington  was  President,  only  one  man 
out  of  thirty  in  America  lived  in  town.  Twenty-nine  out 
of  every  thirty  lived  in  the  country.  To-day  the  propor- 
tions are  nearly  half  and  half.^  The  whole  population  has 
grown  steadily  during  this  century  and  a  quarter;  but 
plainly  the  country  population  and  the  city  population 
must  have  grown  at  different  rates.  The  following  table 
from  the  Census  Reports  shows  these  rates: 


1 790-1 S20 

1820-50 

1860-80 

1880-1900 

1900-1910 

Increase  in  country  dwellers 
Increase  in  city  dwellers 

Per  Cent 
34.1 
50.9 

Per  Cent 
30.3 
83.1 

Per  Cent 
24.2 
58.4 

Per  Cent 

14.3 
48.6 

Per  Cent 
11.2 
34.8 

1  The  Director  of  the  Federal  Census  Bureau,  to  whom  these  figures  were 
submitted  for  verification,  stated  to  the  author  that  pupils  should  bear  in 
mind  that,  were  the  dividing  line  between  city  and  country  8,000  as  in  the 


18 


THE  PEOPLE  OF  THE  FARM 


Plowing  with  Oxen. 
Methods  of  1860. 


When  we  became  a 
nation,  a  rapid  city 
growth  was  just  begin- 
ning.* Ever  since  then 
that  growth  has  been 
more  rapid  than  the 
country  growth.  The 
rate  of  country  growth, 
indeed,  has  decreased 
steadily  from  the  first, 
and  is  now  only  a  third  of 
the  rate  of  city  growth. 
All  these  figures,  it  must  be   remembered,  are  for  the 

nation  as  a  whole.     For  some  districts  the  facts  are  quite 

difiFerent.  Thus,  accord- 
ing to  the  last  census 

rural    Vermont  showed 

a  loss  of  4.2  per  cent  ; 

Ohio,     1.3     per     cent ; 

Indiana,   6.5  per   cent; 

and  Iowa,  7.2  per  cent. 

The    rural    districts    of 

the  south  Atlantic  states, 

on  the  other  hand,  have 

been    growing    for    the 

last  century  about  as  rapidly  as  have  their  cities,  while,  in 

industrial  parts  of  the  United  States  (New  England,  for 


Sowing  with  Tractor  and  Drill. 
Methods  of  1916. 


earlier  censuses  the  per  cent  of  rural  |>opulation  at  the  last  decennial  census 
would  be  61.2  per  cent  of  the  total  population  instead  of  but  53.7  per  cent,  as 
given  in  the  table. 

1  In  17i>0  there  were  only  6  cities  of  the  United  States  having  a  population 
of  8000  or  more;  in  1910  there  were  778.  In  1790,  New  York,  the  largest 
city,  had  a  population  of  49,401.  The  figures  for  1910  show  that  the  number 
of  residents  of  New  York  City  increased  nearly  one  hundred  fold  since 
1790,  and  that  there  are  101  cities  of  the  United  States  having  a  population 
greater  than  New  York  City  had  in  1790. 


RURAL  POPULATION 


19 


example),  city  increase  has  been  very  marked  compared 
witli  rural  increase. 

12.  There  are  three  kinds  of  forces  that  affect  the  decrease  of 
rural  population : 

a.  The  first  kind  has  to  do  with  the  invention  of  new 
machinery.  We  are  living  in  what  has  been  called  "a 
machine  age."  Machine  labor  is  substituted  for  hand 
labor  whenever  the  change  can  be  made  profitably. 


Making  Brooms  on  the  Farm. 

In  1815  (one  hundred  years  ago)  Pennsylvania  was  al- 
ready a  leading  manufacturing  state  ;  but  its  manufactures 
were  still  turned  out,  for  the  most  part,  on  the  farm.  In 
that  year,  Pennsylvania  manufactured  only  about  one 
million  yards  of  woolen  cloth,  and  more  than  fifteen  six- 
teenths of  this  was  manufactured  in  family  homes,  by 
hand  labor  upon  spinning  wheel,  loom  and  shuttle.  These 
very  simple  machines  were  then  in  use  in  every  farmhouse- 
Only  one  sixteenth  of  the  woolen  cloth  was  manufactured 
in  city  factories,  by  large  machinery.    That  was  the  "  Age 


20 


THE  PEOPLE  OF  THE  FARM 


of  Homespun,"  and  the  age  of  independence  of  rural 
families.  Trade  was  in  its  infancy.  Each  family  supplied 
most  of  its  own  needs.  To-day  (1915)  Pennsylvania 
manufactures  about  2000  million  3ards  of  cloth,  and  all  of 
it  u  turned  out  from  city  factories  that  use  costly  and  com- 
plex machinery  with  little  hand  labor. 

In  those  early  days  when  nearly  all  the  cloth  was  woven 
on  the  family  loom,  the  sons  and  daughters  of  farmers  could 

scarcely  find  work  away 
from  home.  And,  on  the 
other  hand,  cities  could 
not  grow,  because,  with 
the  simple  farm  tools  of 
that  time,  it  took  many 
producers  of  food  and 
clothing  to  supply  one 
extra  consumer. 

But  machinery  in- 
creases production ;  and 
manufacturing  machin- 
ery is  so  costly  that  the 
workers  must  come  to- 
gether to  work  in  fac- 
tories. From  1820  to 
1850  (see  table  above)  the  cities  of  the  United  States 
increased  83.1  per  cent  in  population.  This  was  the 
period  of  their  most  rapid  growth.  This  was  also  the 
period  when  machinery  first  began  to  he  extensively  used. 
Inventions  applied  to  production  and  transportation  were 
multiplying  rapidly.  Woolen  mills,  cotton  mills,  and 
furnaces  sprang  up.  The  invention  of  the  steam  loco- 
motive made  it  possible  to  gather  the  raw  materials 
together  and  carry  them  to  distant  factories.  The  de- 
mand  for  labor   to  operate  the  machinery  grew  apace. 


Cyrus  H.  McCormick. 


RURAL  POPULATION 


21 


Farmers'  sons  left  home  to  seek  employment  in  the  new 
enterprises. 

But  even  the  invention  of  machinery  to  work  up  and  re- 
fine the  raw  materials  of  the  farm  cheaply  and  rapidly 
would  not  allow  men  to  leave  the  countryside  unless  some 
ways  were  devised  for  each  farmer  to  produce  more  food 
than  before.  Otherwise,  these  new  city  laborers  would 
have  nothing  to  live  upon.  McCormick  and  others  met 
this  difficulty.    The  reaper  of  McCormick  made  it  possible 


Type  of  Barn  a  Century  Old. 


for  one  farmer  to  produce  more  grain  than  four  or  five 
formerly.  In  1845  the  farmers  produced  4.33  bushels  of 
wheat  to  every  inhabitant  of  the  United  States.  In  1889, 
though  the  farming  districts  at  this  time  had  lost  in  popu- 
lation relatively,  the  farmers  produced  10  bushels  of  wheat 
to  every  inhabitant.  Machinery,  then,  in  city  and  in 
country,  is  the  first  important  force  affecting  the  growth 
of  rural  population. 

b.    The  second  group  of  causes  for  the  relative  decline 
in  rural  population  is  found  in    certain   peculiarities    of 


22  THE  PEOPLE  OF  THE  FARM 

country  life.  Some  features  of  farm  life  have  failed  to 
satisfy  man's  nature.  Man  is  a  social  animal.  He  craves 
companionsliip,  and  is  not  satisfied  with  the  isolation  that 
has  been  so  marked  in  the  past,  and  which  is  yet  a  charac- 
teristic of  many  farms.  Many  people,  therefore,  have  left 
the  country  for  the  city  for  social  reasons.  The  greater 
business  opportunities  and  educational  opportunities  of 
the  cities  have  also  influenced  a  considerable  body  of 
country  people  to  move  there. 

c.  The  third  cause  lies  in  tlie  character  of  the  farmer. 
Some  farmers  are  not  successful  in  their  work.  They 
may  not  be  good  farm  managers.  They  can  succeed  best 
when  working  under  the  direction  of  a  foreman.  The  big 
enterprises  that  require  many  foremen  are  naturally 
located  in  the  centers  of  population.  These  unsuccessful 
farmers  often  move  to  the  city  to  work  under  the  direc- 
tion of  foremen.  Then,  too,  some  city  occupations  are  very 
remunerative.  Farmers'  sons  who  desire  to  be  engineers, 
enter  a  profession,  become  a  merchant,  or  engage  in  indus- 
trial work,  find  the  financial  opportunities  of  the  city 
attractive. 

13.  What  Does  Rural  Migration  Mean  ?  —  We  have  learned 
that,  considering  the  entire  United  States,  the  rate  of 
growth  of  the  rural  communities  has  been  gradually  de- 
clining for  more  than  a  century,  but  that  in  certain  states 
the  decline  is  greater  than  in  others,  and  that  especially  in 
the  South  there  has  been  no  decline  at  all,  but  a  large 
increase,  in  the  population  of  rural  districts. 

What  does  all  this  signify  to  the  American  farmer? 
What  does  it  mean  to  the  nation,  to  its  institutions,  to  its 
future  ? 

The  trend  to  the  city  is  found  not  alone  in  our  country ; 
it  is  world-wide.  It  is  particularly  marked  in  Europe. 
It  is  one  of  the  marks  of  present-day  civilization,  and  is 


RURAL  MIGRATION 


23 


largely  the  result  of  the  railroad,  the  reaper,  the  traction 
engine,  electricity,  scientific  agriculture,  and  factory 
machinery. 

There  is  little  in  the  present  trend  of  rural  population 
to  occasion  alarm.  The  cry  "Back  to  the  farm,"  or  even 
"  Stay  on  the  farm,"  indicates  an  uneasiness  for  which 
there  is  little  warrant.  Young  farmers  who  show  pecul- 
iar aptitudes  for  other  occupations  can  serve  their  day 
better  by  leaving  the  farm  for  the  city  than  by  staying 
at  home.     Thousands  of  acres  of  poor  farm  land  can  best 


A  Modern  Homestead. 


be  "  abandoned."  The  railroads  have  made  the  New  York 
City  market  more  accessible  to  the  Kansas  farmer  than 
it  was  to  the  Massachusetts  farmer  a  century  ago.  The 
difference  in  freight  rates  from  those  two  widely  separated 
states  to  New  York  City  is  less  than  the  difference  in  the 
cost  of  producing  some  farm  crops  on  the  hill  slopes  of 
Massachusetts  and  on  the  Kansas  prairies.  Farming  is  a 
business,  and  cannot  long  be  run  at  a  loss  due  to  compe- 
tition with  better  land,  with  better  machinery,  or  with 
better  market  facilities. 

Most  farmers  are  beginning  to  understand  the  adapta- 


24 


THE  PEOPLE  OF  THE  FARM 


bility  of  certain  crops  to  particular  soils  and  special 
climatic  conditions.  During  the  past  generations  such 
questions  were  not  carefully  considered,  and  so  count- 
less unwise  beginnings  in  farming  were  made.  These 
attempts  are  now  wisely  being  given  up.  Certain  old  hill- 
side farms,  covering  in  their  total  area  thousands  of  acres, 
can  be  devoted  to  forestry  more  profitably  than  to  general 


Barn  at  Mt.  Vernon. 
Washington  was  the  most  scientific  farmer  of  his  day. 

farming.     Such  farms  are  not  really  being  "abandoned"; 
they  are  merely  being  put  to  a  more  natural  use. 

If  the  South  were  to  stop  growing  cotton  ;  if  the  West 
were  to  stop  growing  the  sugar  beet ;  were  the  central 
states  to  stop  growing  corn  ;  —  that  is,  were  any  great  sec- 
tion to  fall  off  seriously  in  the  crops  especially  adapted  to 
its  soil  and  climate,  —  then  a  note  of  alarm  ought  to  be 
sounded.  But  nothing  of  this  sort  has  taken  place.  The 
general  result  of  the  forces  that  are  modifying  the  rate  of 


ATTRACTIVENESS  OF  FARM  LIFE  26 

increase  of  rural  population  will  be  a  better  organization 
of  agricultural  work  throughout  the  country,  a  better 
adaptation  of  crops  to  soils,  an  increased  efficiency,  and  a 
higher  order  of  manhood  and  womanhood  on  the  farm.^ 

It  is  true,  to  be  sure,  that  many  individual  boys  have 
left  the  farm  for  the  city  when  it  would  have  been  better 
for  them  and  for  the  nation  if  they  had  stayed.  Some 
mistakes  of  this  kind  will  always  be  made  both  in  country 
and  city.  Perhaps  they  have  been  particularly  common 
in  the  country  because  farm  life  has  often  been  less  attrac- 
tive than  it  ought  to  have  been,  and  far  less  attractive 
than  it  is  coming  to  be  under  our  modern  conditions. 

14.  Natural  Attractiveness  of  Farm  Life:  Influence  on 
Character.  —  Says  Washington  Irving  :  "In  rural  occupa- 
tion there  is  nothing  mean  and  debasing.  It  leads  a  man 
forth  among  scenes  of  natural  grandeur  and  beauty ;  it 
leaves  him  to  the  workings  of  his  own  mind,  operated 
upon  by  the  purest  and  most  elevating  of  external  influ- 
ences. Such  a  man  may  be  simple  and  rough,  but  he 
cannot  be  vulgar.  The  man  of  refinement  therefore  finds 
nothing  revolting  in  an  intercourse  with  the  lower  orders 
in  rural  life,  as  he  does  when  he  casually  mingles  with  the 
lower  orders  of  cities." 

Farming  is  one  of  the  freest  and  most  independent  of 
callings.  The  farmer  is  more  or  less  detached  from  those 
influences  of  society  and  politics  that  bend  men  against 
their  wishes  and  beliefs.  He  is  the  producer  of  the  first 
necessities  of  life ;  and  a  consciousness  of  this  tends  to 
give  him  a  robust  character. 


1" Better  let  the  lands  be  'abandoned';  and  stay  'abandoned';  better 
let  the  forest  grow  anew  and  untouched,  where  the  fox  may  dig  his  hole 
unscared  and  the  traveler  lose  his  way  in  the  wilderness,  than  that  New 
England  thought.  New  England  culture,  and  New  England  statesmanship  be 
turned  over  to  a  peasant  class."  —  Brewer,  The  Farm  and  Farmer,  the 
Basis  of  National  Strength. 


26  THE  PEOPLE  OF  THE  FARM 

15.  Influence  on  Physical  Welfare.  —  Outdoor  activities 
are  refreshing,  and  act  as  a  tonic  to  the  body.  This  is 
especially  true  of  outdoor  work  in  the  country.  The 
noise  and  hurry  of  the  city,  and  its  indoor  life,  batter 
down  and  undermine  the  nervous  system.  Cities  are 
learning  the  need  of  parks,  open-air  school  buildings,  and 


An  Industrial  Center. 

Industrial  workers  labor  under  countless  disadvantages,  when  compared 
with  farm  workers. 

open-air  sanatoriums,  to  enable  people  broken  down  in 
health  to  get  fresh  air,  quiet,  and  sunshine  to  build  thera 
up.  Farms  have  in  themselves  many  of  the  advantages 
of  parks  and  sanatoriums  for  maintaining  and  restoring 
health. 

The  superiority  of  the  country  in  the  conditions^  of 
wholesome  life  is  fully  proven  by  figures.  The  New 
York  State  Commission  of  Lunacy  states,  in  its  report  for 


^Sorae  diseases,  notably  typhoid,  are  more  prevalent  in  the  country  than 
in  the  city.  There  would  be  even  fewer  cases  of  typhoid  in  the  city  were  it 
not  for  the  contaminated  milk  shipments  of  certain  farmers.  The  city  boy, 
too,  has  generally  the  advantage  of  tested  water,  gj'mnasiums,  swimming 
pools,  dispensaries,  hospitals,  and  other  health  conveniences.  The  point  is,  we 
must  not  think  of  the  city-bred  boy  as  necessarily  weak  and  the  country-bred 
boy  as  necessarily  strong  and  healthy.  We  are  speaking  of  natural  as  against 
artificial  advantages  to  physical  welfare  of  city  and  country. 


ATTRACTIVENESS  OF  THE  FARM 


27 


1908,  that  more  than  three  fourths  of  all  insane  patients 
in  the  state  hospitals  come  from  the  city ;  and  the  Na- 
tional Census  Report  for  1910  gives  the  following  table  of 
average  yearly  death  rates  for  each  thousand  of  population 
of  the  age  period  indicated  : 


Unuee 
1  Ykar 

1-5 
Tears 

6-14 

TeAB8 

15-24 
Ybaes 

25-34 
Years 

85-44 

Y  EARS 

45-64 
Years 

65  AND 

Over 

Cities     .... 
Country     .     .     . 

184.7 
117.4 

69.7 
34.4 

4.3 
3.2 

5.9 
5.3 

9.1 
6.8 

12.1 
8.0 

24.3 
15.7 

90.9 
76.8 

The  wholesome  nature  of  country  life  and  of  the 
farmer's  work  shows  also  in  the  figures  that  deal  with 
moral  health.     Seven  criminals  are  produced  in  the  city 


Hard  Work. 
Which  is  more  tiresome,  shoveling  fuel  or  pitching  hay? 

to  one  in  the  country.  All  reports  upon  suicide  and  upon 
divorce  are  alike  favorable  to  the  rural  districts.  And  the 
census  shows  that  less  than  one  fourth  the  paupers  come 
from  country  occupations. 

16.   The  Growing  Attractiveness  of  the  Farm.  —  These  con- 
ditions, just  discussed,  concerning  the  farmer's  character 


28  THE  PEOPLE  OF  THE  FARM 

and  health,  have  existed  for  a  long  time  with  little  change. 
Now  let  us  note  a  very  great  change  in  another  side  of  his 
life,  —  a  change  that  is  making  the  farm  more  attractive 
to  bright,  intelligent  boys  and  girls  than  ever  before  in 
the  world. 

In  the  past,  farm  work  has  been  excessively  hard,  with 
a  long  labor  day ;  and  also  it  has  been  largely  drudgery. 


Blacksmithing. 
Farm  boys  are  now  taught  repair  and  construction  of  machinery. 

That  is,  the  work  has  been,  in  a  large  degree,  a  kind  of 
work  in  which  brains  did  not  play  a  big  part.  That 
means  that  the  work  was  necessarily  uninteresting.  Now 
the  work  is  still  hard  even  on  the  most  progressive  farms; 
and  hours  are  still  long;  but  more  and  more  the  farmer  is 
mixing  brains  tvith  muscle  in  his  work.^  The  sulky  plow, 
the  riding  cultivator,  the  manure  spreader,  the  milking 


1  The  movement  for  the  eight-hour  day  makes  more  headway  in  industrial 
than  in  agricultural  communities.  Recent  surveys,  however,  show  that  certain 
city  laborers  work  as  many  hours  as  farm  laborers. 


PRACTICAL   QUESTIONS  29 

machine,  the  gasolene  engine,  —  these  and  the  many  like 
contrivances  on  the  modern  farm  not  only  shorten  labor 
hours  and  reduce  the  severity  and  the  more  disagreeable 
features  of  the  work,  but  also  call  for  more  mind,  more 
ingenuity,  more  skill,  than  the  older  tools  did. 

Important  as  is  this  matter  of  labor-saving  and  mind- 
developing  machinery,  it  is  only  a  small  part  of  the  vast 
change.  There  is  a  whole  new  world  of  knowledge  open- 
ing to  the  twentieth-century  farmer.  He  must  "  keep  up" 
with  these  new  discoveries  in  scientific  farming,  and  know 
how  to  apply  them  to  his  conditions.  He  must  know 
not  only  what  crops  best  suit  his  soil,  but  also  what  ones 
are  likely  best  to  suit  the  market  conditions  of  harvest 
time.  He  must  know  the  principles  of  breeding  plants 
and  animals.  No  education,  he  finds,  is  "  too  good  "  for 
his  use.  More  and  more  he  takes  on  the  air  of  a  business 
man ;  and  his  growing  prosperity  wins  him  a  new  respect 
in  the  eyes  of  the  world. 

Fractical  Qukstions 

1.  According  to  the  Census  Bureau,  how  many  inhabitants  must  a 
district  have  in  order  to  be  considered  a  city  ?  2.  During  any  period 
of  the  last  century  has  the  country  increased  in  population  as  rapidly 
as  the  city?  3.  What  is  meant  by  the  phrase  "machine  age"? 
4.  How  can  the  machine  take  the  place  of  a  man  ?  5.  In  Pennsyl- 
vania a  century  ago  was  there  more  woolen  cloth  made  in  the  large 
factories  or  in  the  homes?  6.  What  is  meant  by  "The  Age  of 
Homespun  "  ?  7.  How  did  the  "  Age  of  Homespun  "  keep  people  on 
the  farm?  8.  How  has  invention  retarded  the  growth  in  population 
of  country  districts?  9.  What  has  been  the  main  cause  for  the  in- 
crease in  the  production  of  wheat?  10.  What  do  you  understand  by 
the  economic  side  of  a  farmer's  life ?  The  social  side?  11.  Is  an 
economic  force  stronger  than  a  social  force  ?  12.  Does  the  country 
satisfy  man's  social  nature?  13.  What  is  migration?  14.  Has  the 
son  of  a  farmer  a  right  to  leave  the  farm  to  enter  a  profession  ? 
15.   Is  it  possible  for  a  person  who  leaves  the  farm  to  go  elsewhere 


80  THE  PEOPLE  OF  THE  FARM 

than  the  city?  16.  State  three  attractive  features  of  farm  life. 
17.  How  does  the  business  of  farming  compare  with  that  of  other 
occupations  ? 

Home  Exercises 

1.  Report  the  history  of  your  own  near  relatives  as  to  their  occu- 
pation and  place  of  living.  If  any  have  moved  away  from  the  old 
homestead,  seek  the  rea.son8  for  this  fact.  Perhaps  your  parents  can 
give  all  the  desired  information ;  if  they  cannot,  write  directly  to 
these  relatives  about  this  matter. 

2.  Estimate  the  number  of  men  required  to  do  all  the  work  now 
done  by  machinery  on  some  farm  near  you. 

3.  Count  the  number  of  people  in  your  school  district.  Compare 
this  number  with  the  corresponding  number  five  and  ten  years  ago. 

Suggestions 

1.  Emphasis  should  be  placed  on  studying  the  people  of  the  farm 
directly.  Every  community  Is  a  center  of  great  interest,  and  many 
local  facts  pertaining  to  farm  life  should  be  gathered  and  recorded  in 
the  schoolroom  for  future  reference. 

To  make  country  life  better  and  more  satisfying  we  must  first 
know  the  facts.  A  mere  statement  of  these  facts  is  often  sufficient  to 
arouse  interest  in  rural  betterment. 

2.  It  is  not  supposed,  when  the  school  assumes  the  position  of 
leadership,  that  pupils  pry  into  the  private  affairs  of  their  neighbors. 
This  is  not  only  unnecessary  but  undesirable.  Pupils,  however,  can 
gather  a  vast  fund  of  valuable  information  on  local  conditions  without 
gfiving  offense  to  any  one. 

References 

Constructive  Rural  Sociology.     Gillette. 
Rural  Economics.     Carver. 
The  Challenge  of  the  Country.     Fiske. 
Country  Life  and  the  Country  School.    Carney. 
Chapters  in  Rural  Progress.     Butterfield. 


CHAPTER   in 

COUNTRY  CHILDREN 


^ow,  while  the  growing  boy's  education  must  not  he  especially 
prejudiced  in  favor  of  any  particular  calling,  there  is  no  good 
reason  why  the  farmer's  son  should  not  be  given  the  benefit  of  every 
possible  intim^ate  and  wholesome  relation  to  the  father's  work  and 
business.  —  McKeevkr.  

17.  Farm  Children  as  a  Farm  Crop.  —  It  is  a  common 
saying  that  the  most  valuable  crop  on  the  farm  is  the 
children.     Sometimes  this  saying  is  taken  in  a  mistaken 


The  Best  Farm  Crop. 
All  members  of  one  farmer's  family. 

sense.  Occasionally  a  selfish  parent  thinks  of  raising 
children  for  the  profit  which  he  himself  can  make  out 
of  them. 

31 


32 


COUNTRY  CHILDREN 


It  is  true  that  nearly  every  day  of  the  year,  and  es- 
pecially during  the  summer,  children  of  fit  age  can  help  in 
the  lighter  farm  work.  In  some  kinds  of  work  a  boy  of 
ten  years  can  do  as  much  as  a  man.  Undoubtedly  farm 
children  have  more  chance  to  do  useful  work,  and  to  learn 
how  to  work,  than  city  children  have.  And  no  doubt  there 
is  some  temptation  to  a  selfish,  short-sighted  farmer  to 


Light  Work  for  Children, 
Watching  the  cows. 


overwork  a  child,  just  as  there  is  temptation  to  overwork 
a  colt. 

But  it  is  not  with  regard  to  the  work  they  do  on  the 
farm  that  children  are  called  the  "most  profitable  crop." 
Any  child  that  is  properly  reared,  in  city  or  country,  must 
cost  many  times  more  in  money  than  he  can  possibly  repay 
in  labor  while  a  child.  To  understand  this,  it  is  needful 
only  to  consider  the  care  that  a  child  must  have;  the  over- 
sight essential  for  his  play,  his  schooling,  his  work;  the 
large  part  of  his  childhood  spent  in  school;  the  cost  of  his 
living;  the  taxes  for  his  school,  the  money  s^ent  for  books 


COUNTRY  CHILDREN  AND  CITY  CHILDREN 


33 


and  other  pleasures;  and  the  early  age  at  which  many 
children  insist  on  joining  the  wage-earning  class  on  their 
own  account.  When  we  speak  of  children  as  the  best  farm 
crop,  we  are  not  thinking  of  their  value  to  their  parents  in 
the  work  they  do;  we  think  of  their  value  to  the  nation  as 
future  citizens  and  workers  and  men  and  women.  Espe- 
cially do  we  think  of  the  better  chance  for  developing  a 
good  and  useful  man  or  woman  out  of  a  country  child  as 
compared  with  the  chance  for  a  city  child. 

18.  Country  Children  and  City  Children.  —  Professor  Gillette 
of  the  University  of  North  Dakota  recently  investigated 
the  height,  the  weight,  and  the  head  circumference  of  a 
number  of  city  and  country  boys  and  girls  with  the  follow- 
ing results: 

Country 


Sex 

A..E 

Number 

Height 

Weigut 

Head  Circumference 

Male    .     . 
Female    . 
Average  . 

12 
12 

19 
11 

68.9 

57.11 

58. 

86,11b. 
82.2  lb. 
84.14  lb. 

21.34  inches 
21.34  inches 
21.34  inches 

CiTT 

Sex 

Age 

Number 

Height 

Weight 

Head  Circumference 

Male   .     . 

Female    . 
Average  . 

12 

12 

20 
20 

66.5 

57.77 

57.14 

80.7    lb. 
80.47  lb. 
80.58  lb. 

21.27  inches 
20.97  inches 
21.12  Inches 

It  will  be  noticed,  so  far  as  these  few  individuals  can 
show  anything,  that  the  country  boy  excels  the  city  boy  in 
every  point  considered,  and  that  his  sister  falls  below  the 
city  girl  in  but  one  point.     These  results  are  interesting; 


34  COUNTRY  CHILDREN 

but  on  account  of  the  small  number  of  children  studied, 
they  cannot  be  accepted  as  fully  correct  for  the  average 
country  and  city  child.  They  agree,  in  the  main,  however, 
with  the  results  secured  by  the  careful  observations  of 
other  scientists.  Thus,  in  his  Psychology  of  the  Country 
Boy„  Professor  Gold  states  that  "  while  in  the  sprints  the 
inability  of  the  country  boys  to  get  a  quick  start  acts  as  a 


Comparative  Values 
The  boy  is  a  greater  asset  than  the  pile  of  hay  on  which  he  stands. 

serious  handicap,  in  the  longer  races  they  maintain  a  more 
regular  pace  and  manifest  greater  endurance  than  city 
boys,  even  when  there  is  a  demand  made  upon  the  will  to 
keep  up  the  muscles  to  a  last  supreme  effort." 

A  very  slight  investigation  will  show  that  most  of  our 
presidents,  great  generals,  statesmen,  great  business  men, 
and  famous  writers  were  country-bred.  Fiske  says  in  his 
Challenge  of  the  Country:  "Early  in  the  year  1912  some 
five  hundred  leading  business  and  professional  men  of  the 
cities  of  New  York  State  met  at  a  banquet  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association.  Dur- 
ing the  evening  it  was  discovered  that  nine  tenths  of 


COUNTRY  CHILDREN  AND  CITY  CHILDREN 


36 


these  influential  city  leaders  had  come  from  country 
homes.  They  were  born  on  farms  in  tlie  open  country  or 
in  rural  villages  of  2500  population  or  less." 

From  such  statements  it  appears  that  in  spite  of  the 
drawbacks  of  our  rural  life  the  farm  home  is  the  best  place 
for  child  rearing.  The  crude  materials  for  awakening  the 
best  efforts  of  a  child  are  there.  The  open  sky,  the  sing- 
ing birds,  the  bursting  buds,  the  babbling  brook,  are  con- 


Tablet  at  Union  Station,  Washington. 

stantly  making  an  appeal  for  a  wide  outlook  on  nature. 
The  many-sidedness  of  farm  activities  —  plowing,  dairying, 
harvesting,  threshing,  and  marketing  —  form  an  ideal 
combination.  The  farm  boy  has  opportunity  —  denied  to 
his  city  cousin  —  to  develop  quiet  resolution,  thoughtful- 
ness,  and  love  of  nature.  With  good  reason,  over  the 
entrance  to  the  great  Union  Station  at  Washington  there 
has  been  carved  the  following  inscription : 

THE  FARM:  BEST  HOME  OF  THE  FAMILY 
MAIN  SOURCE  OF  NATIONAL  WEALTH 
FOUNDATION  OF  CIVILIZED  SOCIETY 
THE   NATURAL   PROVIDENCE. 


86  COUNTRY  CHILDREN 

19.  Drawbacks  in  the  Farm  as  a  Nursery.. —  An  oak  tree 
growing  alone  spreads  out  and  forms  many  thick  limbs. 
The  growth  that  went  into  the  limbs  would  have  been 
more  useful  had  it  gone  into  tlie  main  trunk.  It  would 
have  then  formed  a  long,  tapering  body,  yielding  little 
waste  in  lumbering.  Forest  trees  growing  together  pro- 
duce this  desired  form.  Like  the  solitary  oak,  children 
brought  up  on  a  farm,  away  from  the  touch  of  close  neigh- 
bors, are  in  danger  of  developing  characteristics,  like  side 
branches,  that  impair  their  usefulness. 

Isolation  or  separation  from  other  people  is  a  weakness 
of  our  rural  life.  The  country  is  too  often  a  mere  collection 
of  homes,  rather  than  an  association,  or  a  community^  of 
homes.  Alone  with  nature,  young  people  tend  to  become 
selfish  and  do  not  learn  to  cooperate.  They  receive  little 
practical  training  in  service  to  any  outside  the  home. 
The  little  farm  on  which  they  were  born  and  reared 
assumes  too  great  an  importance  when  compared  with  the 
rest  of  the  world.  The  church  and  the  school,  — agencies 
that  should  train  for  rural  service,  —  are  frequently  poorly 
adapted  for  effective  work. 

Farm  crops  often  suffer  from  a  bad  environment  and 
heredity.  The  climate  may  be  too  cold  or  too  hot,  too 
wet  or  too  dry.  The  soil  may  be  too  rich  or  too  poor. 
Diseases  may  appear.  The  seed  may  have  been  weak 
or  diseased.  All  such  conditions  interfere  with  the  best 
growth  of  the  farm  crops. 

In  the  farm  home,  in  like  manner,  children  may  be  ex- 
posed to  too  high  a  temperature  or  to  impure  air.  Their 
food  may  be  too  rich  or  too  poor.  Eye  strains,  ear  defects, 
and  other  general  physical  weaknesses  may  go  uncorrected. 
Parents  may  transmit  tendencies  to  physical  and  moral 
weaknesses,  thus  giving  their  children  poor  bodies  and 
minds.     Little  or  no  opportunity  to  develop  the  sense  of 


ATTENTION   TO  HEALTH  OF  COUNTRY  CHILDREN      37 


ownership  may  be  provided.  No  pets  may  be  present  in 
the  home  to  stir  up  a  feeling  of  companionship  in  the 
children.  In  many  ways,  on  account  of  a  weak  heredity 
and  a  poor  environment,  the  rural  home  may  fail  in  secur- 
ing the  best  conditions  for  child  rearing.  Probably  more 
effort  is  now  given  to 


Farm  Pets. 


meet  such  needs  in  the 
average  city  home  than 
in  the  average  country 
home. 

20.  There  Should  Be 
More  Attention  to  the 
Health  of  Country  Chil- 
dren. —  To  prevent  dis- 
ease is  to  save  money  — 
to  say  nothing  of  more 
important  things.    Costs 

come  out  of  the  same  income,  whether  they  are  due  to 
diseases  of  plants,  of  animals,  or  of  children.  It  is  as 
expensive  to  have  to  call  in  the  doctor  as  the  veterinarian. 
The  farmer  is  obliged  to  raise  more  bushels  of  grain  to 
the  acre  to  keep  up  the  regular  income  if  he  has  also  to 
pay  doctor's  bills.  In  school,  in  some  measure,  children 
are  taught  about  the  parts  of  their  bodies,  and  how  the 
body  should  be  cared  for,  just  as  they  are  taught  to  care  for 
dumb  animals,  but  much  more  such  education  is  needed. 

Animals  cannot  do  their  best  work  when  they  do  not 
feel  well;  nor  can  children.  True,  country  boys  may  fol- 
low the  plow  for  an  entire  day,  swallow  their  meals,  bathe 
infrequently,  neglect  to  clean  the  teeth,  or  to  change  their 
clothing  if  wet,  and  sleep  at  night  in  a  closed  bedroom, 
and  not  know  of  any  ill  effects  for  years.  This  is  because 
nature  has  been  kind  to  them  in  giving  them  strong  bodies, 
and  because  these  evil  habits  are  partly  counteracted  by 


365435 


38  COUNTRY  CHILDREN 

the  good  side  of  their  outdoor  life.  Still  the  results  of 
such  physical  abuse  will  show  themselves  sooner  or  later. 
And  poor  health  in  child  or  man  means  less  work  and  less 
pleasure,  an  added  expense  to  the  home. 

21.  Play.  —  Froebel,  one  of  the  world's  most  famous 
teachers,  says,  "  A  man  is  a  whole  man  only  when  he 
plays."  Play  to  the  child  is  the  same  as  sunshine  to  a 
stalk  of  corn.     The  child  may  grow  without  play  just  as 


Organized  Play. 

the  corn  may  grow  without  sunshine,  but  neither  can  grow 
very  well.  As  a  boy  plays  with  his  dog,  he  is  training  him- 
self in  the  most  practical  fashion  to  work  with  the  animal 
forces  in  later  life.  The  doll  is  a  means  of  teaching  the  girl 
to  direct  the  affairs  of  her  future  home.  And  organized 
play  is  useful  as  a  preparation  for  community  service  and 
for  better  cooperation  in  farm  activities.  Farmers  who 
do  not  make  provision  for  neighborhood  contests  and 
plays,  either  at  the  school  or  at  some  other  community 
center,  are  not  doing  all  that  is  best  for  the  children. 


WORK 


39 


Professor  McKeever  says  that  rural  play  affords:  (1) 
better  physical  health  and  increased  power  to  resist  disease; 

(2)  enlarged  opportunities  for  the  outlet  of  free  activities 
through  the  use  of  the  hands  and  other  parts  of  the  body; 

(3)  provisions  against  evil  thoughts  and  deeds;  (4)  op- 
portunities for  getting  along  with  one's'  fellows  and  for 
learning  to  treat  them  with  fairness  and  justice. 


1. 

^:# 

rV'  ■■^  -^'.M^t^^'i- 

^..1»|^'; 

' \  -""      1    **  ■  \'  Si  \^'t  \ 

%-4  W 

Home  Work. 
Boy  gathering  the  peas  he  has  planted  and  tended. 

22.  Work.  —  Definite  tasks  must  be  assigned  the  older 
children.  And  in  no  other  occupation  can  children  of  all 
ages  receive  such  a  stimulating  uplift  from  a  variety  of 
tasks  as  may  be  given  on  the  farm.  It  is,  however,  just 
as  harmful  for  children  to  work  too  much  as  too  little. 
It  is  as  bad  to  toil  at  tasks  beyond  their  years  as  it  is 
to  loaf. 


40  COUNTRY  CHILDREN 

In  an  increasing  number  of  districts,  school  credit  is 
being  allowed  for  home  work.  A  boy  who  raises  a  hog, 
swats  a  fly,  or  produces  a  pint  of  pure  milk  to  feed  a 
sickly  child  is  performing  a  patriotic  service  for  his 
country.  He  becomes  an  honorable  part  of  the  great 
army  that  is  doing  the  world's  work.  He  is  contributing 
something  valuable  to  our  common  life.  Sooner  or  later 
teachers  will  come  to  recognize  such  activities  in  grading 
their  pupils. 

23.  Books.  —  Unlike  most  farm  crops,  a  child  matures 
slowly.  The  long  period  of  infancy,  childhood,  and  youth 
greatly  extends  his  opportunities  for  mind  growth.  And 
during  these  years,  if  he  has  not  formed  the  habit  of  loaf- 
ing at  questionable  places,  and  if  a  fondness  for  good 
reading  has  been  awakened  in  school,  he  can  greatly  en- 
rich his  mind  from  the  treasures  of  literature. 

Books  are  very  valuable  and  very  cheap.  A  farmer 
needs  a  selected  library,  — not  only  such  books  as  pertain 
to  agriculture  and  rural  life,  but  also  juvenile  books, 
books  of  travel,  history,  fiction,  poetry,  and  science.  If 
he  is  a  lover  of  good  books  himself,  he  most  naturally  will 
awaken  a  desire  for  good  reading  in  his  children.  Thus 
he  may  multiply  the  pleasures  and  profits  of  farm  work, 
and  create  a  dislike  for  the  low  things  of  life. 

24.  Boy  Scouts  and  Camp  Fire  Oirls.  —  The  rural  move- 
ments, under  the  names  of  Boy  Scouts  and  Camp  Fire 
Girls,  seek  to  develop  the  spirit  of  sympathetic  fellowship, 
and  to  acquaint  their  members  with  a  first-hand  knowledge 
of  nature  about  them.  For  the  Boy  Scouts  the  motto  is 
"  Know  the  secrets  of  the  open  country."  Among  their 
first  duties  are  the  following  : 

1.  Know  by  sight  and  call  ten  common  birds. 

2.  Know  by  sight  and  track  ten  wild  animals. 

3.  Know  by  sight  five  common  game  fish. 


THE  CREED  OF  THE  COUNTRY  BOY 


41 


4.  Know  in  the  fields  ten  wild  flowers. 

5.  Know  the  sixteen  points  of  the  compass. 

6.  Know  the  elementary  rules  for  the  prevention  of  typhoid  fever. 

7.  Plant  and  cultivate,  according  to  the  latest  scientific  methods, 
not  less  than  one  half  acre  of  some  farm  or  garden  crop. 

8.  Own  and  care  for,  according  to  latest  scientific  methods,  some 
type  of  pure-bred  domestic  animal. 

9.  Maintain  a  bank  account  of  not  less  than  f  15. 

10.   Know  the  elementary  rules  for  the  prevention  of  tuberculosis. 


iWt^'-*^^^^ 

%^ 

.?,,",  • 

Boy  Scouts  at  Camp. 


Social  "  hikes "  are  taken,  and  promotions  are  made 
from  the  third  to  the  first  class.  The  duties  in  the  ad- 
vanced classes  become  more  extended  than  those  named 
above. 

25.  The  Creed  of  the  Country  Boy.  —  "I  believe  that  the 
country  which  God  made  is  more  beautiful  than  the  city 
which  man  made  ;  that  life  out-of-doors  and  in  touch  with 
the  earth  is  the  natural  life  of  man.  I  believe  that  work 
is  work  wherever  we  find  it,  but  that  work  with  nature  is 


42  COUNTRY  CHILDREN 

more  inspiring  tlian  work  witli  the  most  delicate  machin- 
ery. I  believe  that  the  dignity  of  labor  depends  not  on 
what  you  do,  but  on  how  you  do  it;  that  opportunity 
comes  to  the  boy  on  the  farm  as  often  as  to  a  boy  in  the 
city  ;  that  life  is  larger  and  freer  and  happier  on  the  farm 
than  in  the  town  ;  that  my  success  depends  not  upon  my 
location,  but   upon  myself,  —  not   upon   my  dreams,  but 


Rope  Splicing. 
Practical  work  for  the  country  boy. 

upon  what  I  actually  do,  —  not  upon  luck  but  upon  pluck. 
I  believe  in  working  when  you  work,  and  in  playing  when 
you  play,  and  in  giving  and  demanding  a  square  deal  in 
every  act  of  life."  —  Edward  Osgood  Grover. 

Practical  Questions. 

1.  How  can  farm  children  aid  their  parents?  2.  How  do 
country  and  city  children  compare  ?  3.  In  a  race,  why  should  not 
the  country  boy  start  as  quickly  as  the  city  boy?  4.  What  Presi- 
dents of  the  United  States  came  from  the  country  ?  5.  Name  some 
writers  that  were  country-bred.  6.  What  side  of  country  life 
app>eals  most  to  you?  7.  How  may  children  suffer  from  the  effects 
of  bad  environment  ?     8.  Give  an  ezperieuce  with  your  dog.     9.  Can 


SUGGESTIONS  43 

a  dog  reason?  10.  Which  position  do  you  like  best  on  the  ball 
team?  Why?  11.  Do  children  like  to  work  for  their  parents  at 
home?  12.  Which  job  on  the  farm  do  you  like  best ?  13.  Which 
least?  14.  Do  you  belong  to  the  Boy  Scouts'  or  Camp  Fire  Girls' 
organization  ?  15.  Do  these  organizations  make  better  rural  citi- 
zens?     16.   Can  you  accept  the  "  Creed  of  tiie  Country  Boy  "? 

Home   Exercises 

1.  Organize  a  ball  team  among  the  farm  boys  and  send  a  challenge 
to  a  suitable  team  near  by.  Work  up  enthusiasm  for  clean  rural 
sports  during  the  long  summer  months.  If  possible,  organize  town- 
ship leagues.     Sympathetic  cooperation  is  what  is  needed. 

Organize  teams  for  different  varieties  of  contests  among  the  girls 
also.  Advertise  all  contests  widely.  See  that  the  older  folks  come 
out  on  a  Saturday  afternoon.     They,  too,  need  recreation. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  the  books,  periodicals,  papers,  pictures,  and  musi- 
cal instruments  you  have  at  home.  Read  at  least  one  book  a  month, 
and  tell  the  story  of  what  you  have  read  to  your  class. 

3.  How  many  dollars  did  your  father  lose  this  last  year  through 
avoidable  sickness  in  the  family? 

Suggestions 

1.  The  bringing-up  of  the  right  type  of  children  that  are  content 
to  stay  on  the  farm,  if  they  can  be  of  greater  service  there,  is  as  much 
a  problem  of  agriculture  as  is  soil  fertility.  The  pupils  should  make 
a  list  of  all  the  features  of  the  farm  environment  that  have  most 
helped  them  to  grow  physically,  morally,  and  spiritually.  As  an 
illustration  we  present  herewith  a  list  of  country-life  pictures  that  are 
exerting  an  uplifting  influence  on  the  moral  side. 

Millet  Dupre 

The  Gleaners  Escaped  Cow 

Angelus  The  Hay  Makers 

Feeding  Her  Birds  Milking  Time 

Rosa  Bonheur  Le  Rolle 

Oxen  Plowing  By  the  River 

A  Norman  Sire  The  Shepherdess 

Weaning  Calves 
The  Horse  Fair 
A  Humble  Servant 


44  COUNTRY  CHILDREN 

Ruysdael  Constable 

Landscape  with  Windmill  The  Cornfield 

The  Coming  Storni  Valley  Farm 

2.  Those  chapters  of  physiology  that  treat  of  alcohol  and  of  the 
cigarette  habit  can  be  correlated  with  the  ideas  set  forth  in  this 
chapter.  The  child  may  be  shown  that,  even  if  he  be  viewed  only 
as  plants  are  viewed,  all  those  agencies  that  retard  his  growth  inter- 
fere with  agricultural  prosperity. 

References 

Farm  Boys  and  Girls.     McKeever. 

Rural  Hygiene.     Brewer. 

Chapters  in  Rural  Progress.     Butterfield. 

Constructive  Rural  Sociology.     Gillette. 

Play  and  Recreation.     Curtis. 

Country  Life  and  the  Country  School.     Carney. 

The  Challenge  of  the  Country.     Fiske. 


CHAPTER   IV 

THE  APFAIES   OF  THE   FARM 


The  farm  is  out  of  doors.  It  has  relations  with  everything  out  of 
doors,  —  with  the  wild  animals  as  well  as  the  rest.  This  general 
relationship  has  been  little  appreciated  in  a  conscious  way,  and  the 
result  is  the  farm-ing  business  has  not  yet  been  closely  adapted  to 
its  environment.  —  Bailey. 

/  know  of  no  pursuit  in  which  more  real  and  important  service 
can  be  rendered  to  any  country  than  by  im-proving  its  agriculture 
and  its  breed  of  useful  anim,als.  —  George  Washington. 


26.  A  Larger  Farm  Life.  —  Farming  has  to  do  with  making 
a  living  out  of  the  land;  but,  still  more,  it  has  to  do  with 
the  farmer's  life  itself.  The  smith  does  not  live  in  his 
shop,  but  goes  home  when  the  day's  work  is  done.  So 
do  the  merchant  and  the  miner.  But  the  farmer  lives  on 
his  land  as  well  as /row  it.  The  farm  is  his  place  of  busi- 
ness, and  also  it  is  his  home.  Whatever  concerns  it  affects 
not  merely  his  wealth  but  also  his  welfare.  Health,  school, 
cooperation,  community  spirit,  and  all  the  agencies  that 
uplift  farm  life  and  give  it  a  wider  outlook  are  vital  affairs 
of  the  farm. 

27.  Health.  —  Filth,  fiies,  and  fever  are  a  combination  of 
vital  concern  to  the  farmer.  If  the  filth,  which  includes 
refuse  of  almost  any  kind  likely  to  be  exposed  around 
dwellings,  is  destroyed  or  made  inoffensive,  the  flies  and 
the  fever  need  less  attention.  Without  filth,  flies  will  not 
breed.  With  filth,  health  is  always  endangered.  So  long 
as  the  house  fly  was  regarded  merely  as  an  intruder  in  the 

46 


46 


THE  AFFAIRS  OF  THE  FARM 


household  its  presence  was  only  annoying  ;  but  now  when 
we  know  that  it  spreads  the  germs  of  typhoid,  tuberculosis, 
and  cholera  among  human  beings,  and  of  anthrax  among 
cattle,  it  must  be  regarded  as  a  menace. 

Franklin  said,  "A  people's  health  is  a  nation's  wealth." 
Any  condition  that  undermines  health,  whether  it  be  the 

presence  of  flies,  a  lack 
of  cleanliness  or  of  suit- 
able clothing,  or  the 
practice  of  wrong  habits 
of  living,  limits  hap- 
piness and  impairs  suc- 
cess. Good  farming 
requires  health  and 
cheerfulness.  It  is  even 
more  important  for  the 
farmer  to  keep  himself 
and  his  family  well  and 
strong  than  to  protect 
his  crops  and  stock  from 
pests  and  diseases. 

28.  Schools.  —  The 
rural  schools  cost,  on  an 
average,  $12.52  a  year 
per  pupil.  The  money 
spent  in  the  city  for 
the  same  purpose  is  $30.78.  His  investment  for  schools 
is  the  best  the  farmer  can  make.  His  school  taxes  bring 
more  good  than  the  same  money  spent  in  any  other  way. 
In  a  free  government,  education  should  reach  all.  Children 
need  trained  minds  whether  they  are  to  become  lawyers, 
mechanics,  engineers,  or  farmers.  In  the  country  not  only 
such  branches  as  arithmetic,  history,  and  geography  should 
be  studied,  but  agriculture  as  well.     Ninety  per  cent  of 


The  Typhoid  Carrier. 

The  hairs  on  legs  and  body  of  the  house- 
fly carry  disease  germs. 


COOPERATION  AMONG  FARMERS 


47 


the  young  people  in  our  schools  will  remain  in  the  com- 
munity in  which  they  were  born  and  reared,  and  it  is 
their  duty  and  their  right  to  become  acquainted  in 
school    with   some   of   the   affairs   of    their   mature   life. 

Our  government  and 
agricultural  colleges  are 
willing  to  send,  for  the 
most  part  free  of  charge, 
attractive  and  helpful 
bulletins  that  will  ex- 
plain in  detail  every 
difficult  farm  operation. 
Children  in  the  country 
should  learn  to  profit  by 
the  ideas  found  in  these 
bulletins.  Men  study 
agriculture,!  just  as  they 
study  law  or  medicine, 
and  farmers  need  a 
special  education  in  their 
walk  of  life  to  be  en- 
tirely successful. 

29.  Cooperation  among 
Farmers.  —  About  half 
the  farmers  of  the  United 
States  belong  to  cooper- 
ative societies.  These  societies  operate  irrigation  plants, 
insurance  companies,  telephones,  creameries,  laundries, 
cheese  factories,  grain  elevators,  farmers'  banks,  and  so 


Caught ! 

Mice  and  rats  are  common  carriers  of 
disease  germs. 


1  The  farm  management  department  of  Cornell  University  gathered  data 
recently  relative  to  the  labor  income  of  more  than  thirteen  hundred  New 
York  farmers.  The  University  found  that  the  labor  income  of  the  farmers 
who  had  completed  the  eighth  grade  only  was  S318  per  year;  of  those  with 
a  high  school  training  was  ^622  per  year;  while  the  farmers  with  a  college 
course   received  §847   per  year.    The   investigation   made  by  the   United 


48  THE  AFFAIRS  OF  THE  FARM 

on.  Farming  is  a  business,  and  it  must  be  based  on 
business  principles.  By  collective  buying,  the  price  of 
reapers  has  been  reduced  from  $  275  to  $  175;  of  threshers 
from  $  300  to  ii5200  ;  of  wagons  from  *  150  to  1 90.  It  has 
been   estimated   by  Professor  Valgren  that   the  Mutual 


The  Country  School. 
A  farm  institution. 

Fire  Insurance  companies  save  the  farmers  of  Minnesota 
annually  $750,000. 

The  farmers  of  Denmark,  however,  for  the  last  half 
century  have  best  shown  the  advantages  of  working  to- 
gether. In  1864,  after  a  ruinous  war,  with  depleted  soil 
fertility  and  with  scant  funds,  the    Danes  startpd  many 

States  Department  of  Agriculture  of  the  labor  income  of  two  hundred  seventy- 
four  tenant  farmers  of  Indiana  is  likewise  very  favorable  to  the  work  of  the 
schools.  The  Department  discovered  that  the  farmers  with  a  common 
school  education  made  $742  annually;  with  a  high  school  training  S1268 
annually ;  while  the  college  trained  tenant  farmer  was  having  a  yearly  income 
of  8  1721.  These  facts  indicate  strongly  that  it  pays  prospective  farmers  to 
prolong  their  schooling,  even  when  one  considers  education  as  a  financial 
investment  merely. 


COMMUNITY  SPIRIT 


49 


cooperative  enterprises.  At  the  present  time  they  are  the 
richest  farming  class  in  Europe  in  per  capita  wealth.  Sir 
Horace  Plunkett,  a  celebrated  economist,  states  that 
cooperation  made  this  wealth  possible. 

30.  Community  Spirit. — No  farmer  can  realize  the  fruits  of 
his  best  efforts  without  the  friendly  assistance  of  all  good 
citizens  of  the  community.  If  one  spends  his  entire  time 
working  for  himself,  his  life  soon  becomes  dull.  There 
are  many  social  duties  and  social  opportunities  for  country 


^  111  S  Q  ^ 

.  jL^jJ^^^B 

-n^flMf  T^  ' 

^^^i 

^ 

H^g 

^^v -W ' ''  •  ^^^^1 

Cooperation  of  Farmers. 
Grange  meeting  at  a  "rural  center." 

people.  Granges,  cooperative  societies,  rural  betterment 
leagues,  educational  agencies,  schools,  churches,  are  fields 
in  which  farmers  can  profitably  take  an  interest.  The 
ideal  farmer  is  one  who  not  only  does  his  own  work  well, 
and  is  neat  and  prosperous,  but  who  also  takes  a  lively  in- 
terest in  all  forms  of  rural  activities  that  promote  the  gen- 
eral wealth  and  welfare  of  the  community.  The  farmer's 
happiness  as  well  as  his  profits  arise  from  being  a  part  of  a 
neighborhood  instead  of  being  merely  a  resident  in  it. 

We  naturally  expect  a  community  consciousness  to  be 
more  highly  developed  in  the  centers  of  population  where 


60  THE  AFFAIRS   OF  THE  FARM 

individuals  are  thrown  closely  together  in  their  habits  of 
living.  Quite  as  naturally  do  we  look  for  collective  action 
in  most  of  the  rural  districts  of  Europe,  for  the  reason  that 
the  farms  there  are  much  smaller  in  size  than  the  average 
of  America,  thus  bringing  the  rural  workers  together  more 
directly.  Our  broad  acres,  without  the  best  means  of  com- 
munication and  travel,  do  not  lend  themselves  so  readily 
to  community  planning. 

One  of  the  best  means  of  fostering  early  in  life  a  feeling 
that  should  later  ripen  into  a  wholesome  cooperation  is 
group  contests.  When  a  pupil  raises  a  patch  of  corn  in 
competition  with  many  others,  he  is  receiving,  no  doubt,  a 
kind  of  training  which  can  not  be  excelled  by  any  other 
method  ;  but  if  we  carry  these  individual  contests  very  far, 
pupils  begin  to  think  too  much  of  themselves,  or  of  winning 
the  prize.     They  become  selfish  and  distrustful  of  others. 

When,  however,  the  young  people  of  a  farm  section  form 
a  group  or  club  and  then  plan  and  strive  to  get  superior 
results  as  a  group,  each  member  becoming  willing  to  sacri- 
fice a  little  personal  advantage  for  the  good  of  the  whole, 
we  are  laying  the  foundation  for  an  efficient  community 
spirit  in  later  life.  Just  as  we  play  or  work  together,  as 
young  folks,  so  later  on  we  will  select  together  certain 
varieties  of  fruit,  kinds  of  poultry,  cattle,  or  grains,  and 
soon  develop  a  high  degree  of  local  pride  by  producing 
products  of  the  highest  merit.  Instead  of  one  farmer  alone 
trying  to  place  his  district  "  on  the  map  "  there  will  be 
team  work,  united  effort. 

The  leader  of  this  community  action,  whether  the  local 
minister,  teacher,  or  Y.  M.  C.  A.  director,  will  have  one 
ideal;  namely,  to  make  the  local  farm  life  better  for  all, 
both  socially  and  economically.  Dealers  who  are  looking 
for  produce  in  large  quantities  will  then  soon  learn  that  in 
the  southern  end  of  a  certain  county,  for  example,  farmers 


CLUBS 


61 


by  working  together  have  developed  fine  herds  of  one 
standard  breed  or  excellent  apples  of  an  approved  variety. 
The  dealers  will  say  "  for  Holstein  cattle  we  will  go  here ; 
for  Berkshire  hogs  we  will  go  there."  This  is  the  fruit  of 
a  community  spirit.  It  pays.  American  farmers  need  to 
learn  this  lesson  thoroughly. 

31.   Clubs.  —  In   order  to  develop  a  better  community 
spirit  and   to  make  country  life  more   satisfying,   many 


Club  Members  Working  their  Projects. 


farmers'  clubs  have  been  organized.  In  1914  there  were 
more  than  200,000  of  them,  and  their  popularity  is  grow- 
ing. Sometimes  the  club  membership  is  made  up  largely 
of  the  older  boys  and  girls,  including  many  who  have  left 
school.  Some  rural  leader  —  teacher,  superintendent  of 
schools,  or  county  agent  —  takes  up  club  work  with  the 
young  people  and  urges  them  to  organize  to  work  on  some 
definite  problem,  such  as  potato  growing,  tomato  growing, 


52 


THE  AFFAIRS  OF  THE  FARM 


or  corn  growing.  A  letter  may  be  sent  to  the  state  leader 
in  charge  of  boys'  and  girls'  clubs  at  the  State  Agricul- 
tural College.  This  organizer  will  take  up  the  matter  at 
once  and  discuss  the  plans  to  be  followed. 

If  the  young  people  decide  to  have  a  corn  club,  instruc- 
tions for  raising  corn  are  sent  from  the  Agricultural  College 
to  every  member.  The  instructions  are  most  practical  and 
helpful,  and  contain  the  best  advice  that  can  be  given.  By 
following  them,  many  boys  have  surpassed  their  parents  in 

producing  greater  yields 


Poultry  Club  Member. 


per  acre  and  in  reducing 
the  cost  of  production. 
Suitable  prizes,  perhaps 
a  trip  to  Washington, 
are  offered  to  the  club 
member  obtaining  the 
best  results.  The  basis 
of  award  is  made  ac- 
cording to  such  schemes 
as  are  given  in  this  book  at  the  end  of  the  corn  or  potato 
chapter. 

The  club  idea  is  now  an  important  affair  in  many  rural 
communities.  Each  member  of  a  club  is  impressed  with 
the  fact  that  he  has  some  worthy  purpose  in  life.  Circu- 
lars and  bulletins  that  are  sent  to  him  free  of  charge  take 
on  a  new  meaning.  The  young  farmer  knows  that  thou- 
sands of  other  young  people  are  facing  the  same  difficulties 
that  confront  him ;  and  a  consciousness  of  this  fact  helps 
him  to  "make  the  best  better." 

32.  Festiyals. —  Festivals  of  different  kinds,  such  as  corn 
festivals,  are  excellent  means  for  quickening  the  social  life. 
When  people  get  togetiier  and  ask  questions  and  listen  to 
discussions  of  local  problems,  they  will  be  benefited  not 
only  socially  but  in  purse  as  well.     The  success  of  festivals 


FESTIVALS 


53 


depends  largely  on  the  leadership.  The  country  teacher 
is  in  a  position  to  be  the  natural  leader,  but  the  pupils 
under  her  direction  should  do  the  main  work. 

Suppose  we  decide  to  have  a  corn  festival  during  some 
future  evening.  Tlie  hall  or  schoolhouse  should  display 
corn  and  all  its  products.  The  pupils  are  expected  to 
render  selections  or  read  essays  on  the  different  phases  of 
corn  growing.     The  festival  means  a  eorn  night.     Some 


School  Exercise  in  Pruning. 
The  farmers  were  invited  to  attend  this  demonstration. 

one  who  has  been  successful  in  corn  growing  should  give 
the  others  the  benefit  of  his  experiences.  The  members  of 
the  local  corn  club  should  learn  at  least  one  new  thing  in 
addition  to  having  a  good  time  socially. 

Such  festivals  should  be  made  very  practical  and  help- 
ful in  every  feature  from  first  to  last.  The  stringing  and 
testing  of  seed  corn  may  be  demonstrated.  A  talk  on 
seed  selection  and  the  points  of  corn  judging  would  be 
helpful.  Anything  is  in  order  that  will  lead  to  definite 
results. 


64  THE  AFFAIRS  OF  THE  FARM 

33.  Agricultural  Fairs.  —  Over  1200  county  fairs  are  held 
in  the  United  States  yearly.  At  many  of  these  the  State 
Agricultural  Colleges  have  exliibits.  Premiums  are 
ofifered  for  the  best  specimens  of  fruit,  sheep,  model  dairy 
barn,  vegetables,  preserves,  beef  and  dairy  products, 
swine,  feed  and  forage  crops,  needlework,  and  for  numerous 
other  articles.     Unfortunately,  however,  low-grade  shows. 


1 

2 

^M 

^H^^^ 

^H 

HH 

HHHp^H 

HHfcp^ 

g 

jj^  >  t^^UL^ 

^^^ 

Ully 

1 

H 

Ipii^ 

An  Agricultural  Fair. 

gambling  devices,  and  fakers  offset  in  part  the  services 
these  fairs  render  the  farmers. 

Colleges  of  agriculture  use  the  fair  as  a  means  of  reach- 
ing the  farmer  personally,  and  for  explaining  the  work  of 
the  college.  Demonstration  work  is  carried  on.  Results 
of  investigations  in  fertilizing,  spraying,  crop  rotation,  and 
feeding  are  explained.  Names  and  addresses  of  repre- 
sentative farmers  are  secured.  Afterward,  agricultural 
information  is  sent  to  them,  and  thus  many  projects  for 
rural  improvement  are  started. 

34.  The  Government  and  the  Farmer.  —  In  order  to  pro- 
mote better  farming.  Congress  spends  at  least  $20,000,000 
a  year.  The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  is  a  member  of  the 
President's  cabinet.  Every  problem  that  concerns  farm 
work  is  studied  by  experts  of  the  Department  of  Affricul- 


THE  GOVERNMENT  AND   THE  FARMER 


55 


twre.  During  1912  there  were  13,000  employees  in  this 
service,  of  whom  2,500  were  stationed  at  Washington. 
Fifteen  hundred  kinds  of  new  seeds  and  plants  were 
brought  to  the  attention  of  farmers  by  the  Department 
during  the  year  1914.  Tests  of  the  soil  are  made  in  all 
parts   of   the    country   in    order   that   grazers,   vegetable 


I^^M 

HH^^^^ 

P^p 

1^ 

^M 

W^m 

w^ 

'^ 

1 

An  Orchard  Meeting.^  • 

growers,  and  others  may  know  the  exact  character  and 
needs  of  their  lands. 

In  addition  to  this  work  done  by  the  national  govern- 
ment, each  state  and  territory  has  its  own  Experiment 
Station  and  College  of  Agriculture.  The  New  York  State 
College    of    Agriculture   at    Cornell,  for  example,  has   a 


iFrom  left  to  right:  Prof.  F.  A.  Waugh,  Massachusetts  Agricultural 
College ;  T.  L.  Kenny,  owner  of  the  orchard  ;  A.  C.  True,  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture ;  Prof.  G.  L.  Hills,  Vermont  Agricultural  College ;  Prof. 
L.  R.  Jones,  Wisconsin  Agricultural  College;  Prof.  S.  A.  Beach,  Iowa  Agricul- 
tural CoUegtf ;  Prof.  John  Craig,  Cornell  University. 


66 


THE  AFFAIRS  OF  THE  FARM 


faculty  of  over  a  hundred  men,  and  expends  over  a  half 
million  dollars  annually  on  its  work.  The  enrollment  in 
most  of  the  colleges  for  farmers  has  multiplied  greatly 
during  the  last  few  years. 

Recently,  in  a  number  of  states,  experts  known  as 
county  agents  are  being  located  in  the  different  counties  to 
advise  interested  farmers  personally  on  questions  peculiar 
to  their  farms.     These  men  are  the  apostles  of  scientific 


Farmers  and  their  Wives. 
On  an  excursion  to  visit  the  State  College  of  Agriculture. 

agriculture.  In  the  most  vital  way,  they  reach  many  who 
are  not  in  the  habit  of  looking  beyond  their  neighborhood 
for  assistance.  The  help  rendered  in  this  manner  is  of 
the  most  practical  kind. 

The  county  agents  are  carrying  out  some  of  the  pur- 
poses of  the  Smith-Lever  bill  which  became  a  national  law 
May  8,  1914.  This  law  provides  for  instructive  and  prac- 
tical demonstrations  in  agriculture  and  home  economics  to 
persons  not  having  the  advantages  of  attendance  at  an 
agricultural  college.     To  carry  the  provisions  of  the  law 


THE  NEED   OF  SCIENTIFIC  FARMING  57 

into  effect  8480,000  are  appropriated  annually  to  the  sev- 
eral states  from  the  national  treasury. 

The  second  year  the  law  is  in  force  an  additional  sura  of 
^600,000  is  likewise  appropriated,  "and  for  each  year 
thereafter  for  seven  years  a  sum  exceeding  by  $500,000  the 
sum  appropriated  for  each  preceding  year,  and  for  each 
year  thereafter  there  is  permanently  appropriated  for  each 
year  the  sum  of  !|4,100,000  in  addition  to  the  sum  of 
$480,000  hereinbefore  provided."     These  sums  are  avail- 


Tree  Planting  DhivioN^iKAiiON. 
A  county  agent  in  the  center. 

able  to  the  several  states  on  the  basis  of  their  rural  popu- 
lation compared  to  the  total  rural  population  of  the  entire 
country,  provided  that  the  state  legislature  appropriates 
from  its  local  treasury  an  amount  equal  to  the  sum  pro- 
vided for  by  the  federal  law. 

35.  The  Need  of  Scientific  Farming.  —  At  the  present  time 
there  is  need  of  more  scientific  farming  in  America. 
When  nearly  everybody  lived  on  the  land,  for  each  farm 
to  produce  sufficient  food  for  itself  until  the  next  harvest 
was  about  all  that  was  required.     With  the  growth  of 


58  THE  AFFAIRS  OF  THE  FARM 

cities,  increasing  demands  were  made  upon  the  farm.  But 
farming  in  America  was  on  an  unscientific  basis,  ill-pre- 
pared to  meet  all  the  new  demand. 

This  was  partly  due,  perhaps,  to  the  ease  with  which 
land  was  acquired.  Most  of  the  farm  land  in  the  central 
and  western  sections  of  our  country  was  originally  sold  by 
the  government  very  cheap,  or  even  given  away  to  settlers. 
In  1800,  the  government  began  to  sell  quarter-sections 
(160  acres)  at  $2  an  acre,  taking  one  fourth  in  cash 
and  giving  credit  for  the  rest.  This  system  led  to  a 
wild  rush  to  the  new  lands,  and  the  long  lines  of  would-be 
buyers  before  the  doors  of  the  government  land  offices 
gave  rise  to  the  expression  "doing  a  land-office  business." 
In  1820,  the  government  stopped  giving  credit,  but  began 
to  sell  eighties  (80  acres)  at  $1.25  an  acre.  Then  in  1862, 
under  the  Homestead  Law,  it  began  to  give  land,  in  160- 
acre  tracts,  to  any  settler  who  would  improve  it  and  live 
upon  it  a  certain  length  of  time. 

This  generous  policy  of  the  nation  in  regard  to  its 
public  lands  had  many  good  results ;  but  it  had  at  least 
one  bad  result.  It  encouraged  careless  and  unscientific 
cultivation.  Farming  on  these  easily  acquired  lands  was 
carried  on  in  a  very  primitive  way.  Stock  raising  was 
little  more  than  herding  on  the  open  range.  Even  for  the 
tiller  of  the  soil,  plowing,  sowing,  and  harvesting  made 
up  the  whole  business.  The  waste  of  the  soil  was  tre- 
mendous, —  and  the  soil  is  our  most  valuable  national  re- 
source. It  is  partly  because  of  these  old,  destructive 
methods  of  agriculture  that  the  people  of  the  United 
States  are  now  facing  a  rapid  increase  in  the  cost  of  farm 
produce,  and  that  some  thinkers  fear  lest  the  food  supply 
will  not  keep  pace  with  our  growing  population. 

Science  is  now  laying  the  foundation  for  better  and  less 
wasteful  farming.     Chemistry  teaches  the  scientific  feed- 


AGRICULTURAL  P UBLICA TIONS 


69 


ing  of  animals  and  the  food  requirements  of  crops. 
Physics  unfolds  the  principles  of  the  control  of  soil  water 
and  of  the  construction  of  farm  machinery.  Biology  re- 
veals the  proper  methods  of  combating  harmful  insects, 
and  explains  the  nature  of  plants  and  animals.  Economics 
considers  the  best  plans  for  buying  and  marketing,  the  most 
efficient  farm  unit  to  operate,  and  the  various  questions  of 
community  efficiency.  Scientific  farming  means  systematic 
arid  intelligent  management  along  all  these  lines. 

36.  Agricultural  Publications.  —  Over  9,000,000  copies  of 
farmers'  bulletins  are  distributed  annually  by  the  United 
States  Department  of 
Agriculture.     Any  per- 


son in  our  country  can 
be  enrolled  on  applica- 
tion, and  can  receive  the 
free  monthly  list  of  avail- 
able Department  pub- 
lications. These  pub- 
lications are  sent,  for  the 
most  part,  free  of  charge, 
on  request. 

Interesting     and     in- 


hk  Aiiioctninu  torn  of 


W 


Agricultural  College  Bulletin. 


structive  matter  is  also  mailed  free  by  the  State  Colleges 
and  Experiment  Stations.  Helpful  books  relating  to 
farming,  country  life  periodicals,  and  carefully  prepared 
matter  sent  to  local  newspapers  exert  great  influence 
in  rural  sections.  The  state  and  local  associations  of 
stockmen,  horticulturists,  and  grain  growers  distribute 
their  proceedings  widely.  The  printed  page  —  attrac- 
tive, readable,  and  reliable,  as  it  has  now  come  to  be  — 
is  awakening  a  better  life  in  the  country,  and  its  influence 
for  good  cannot  be  measured. 


60  TUE  AFFAIRS  OF  THE  FARM 

Pkactical  Questions 
1.  How  does  the  house  fly  affect  the  farmer's  health  ?  2.  In  what 
way  can  health  be  coDsidered  as  wealth?  3.  What  is  the  pur- 
pose of  the  rural  school?  4.  Why  do  pupils  study  agriculture? 
5.  What  is  meant  by  co6peration?  6.  Give  as  many  instances  of 
cooperation  as  you  can.  7.  Of  what  value  is  an  agricultural  fair? 
8.  Name  three  ways  in  which  the  government  helps  the  farmer. 

Home  Exercises 

1.  Visit  the  local  cemetery  and  note  the  ages  of  about  fifty  people 
buried  there.  Average  these  ages  and  report.  Compare  the  average 
with  that  of  your  near  relatives  at  the  time  of  death. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  all  enterprises  in  which  your  parents  coSperate 
with  their  neighbors,  and  with  home  aid  estimate  the  resulting  gain. 

">..  Suggestions 

1.  Farmers  are  missing  an  excellent  opportunity  if  they  do  not 
keep  in  touch  with  the  work  the  government  is  doing  for  them.  It 
will  be  well  to  have  a  child  in  each  family  send  a  postcard  either 
to  Washington  or  to  your  state  agricultural  college  for  a  free  cir- 
cular or  bulletin  that  gives  full  information  on  some  problem  of  local 
interest.  This  circular  should  become  the  property  of  the  pupil,  and 
naturally  the  parents  would  read  parts  of  it.  A  course  in  agriculture, 
except  in  colleges,  must  be  brief  and  deal  mostly  with  a  few  general 
principles.  Detailed  information,  such  as  no  school  text-book  can  give, 
is  needed  on  wheat  in  Kansas ;  potatoes  in  Maine ;  or  cotton  in  Louis- 
iana. It  is  the  purpose  of  the  "  College  Extension  Service  "  of  every 
state  to  give  this  information  in  readable  and  attractive  bulletins 
suitable  for  recitation  work  in  the  schools.  This  service  is  free. 
Teachers  should  see  that  these  helpful  aids  are  not  lacking. 

References 
Rural  Hygiene.     Brewer. 
How  to  Cooperate.     Myrick. 
Outlines  of  Practical  Sanitation.     Bashore. 
Farm  Boys  and  Farm  Girls.     McKeever.  * 

Country  Life  and  the  Country  School.     Carney. 
Country  Life.     The  Annals,  March,  1912. 
T^e  New  Earth.     Harwood. 
The  State  and  the  Farmer.     Bailey. 
Our  Farming.     Terry. 


CHAPTER   V 
THE  BUSINESS   OF  FAEMING 


Better  farming,  better  business,  better  living.  —  Roosevelt. 

At  the  head  of  all  the  sciences  and  arts,  at  the  head  of  civiliza- 
tion and  progress,  stands,  — not  militarism,  the  science  that  kills, 
not  commerce,  the  art  that  accumulates  wealth,  —  but  Agriculture,  the 
mother  of  all  industry  and  the  maintainer  of  human  life. 

—  James  A.  Gaefield. 

37.  Why  do  we  Farm?  —  We  are  likely  to  overlook  the 
reason  why  more  than  one  half  of  our  people  are  farming. 
We  see  a  man  rising  early  in  the  morning  and  driving 
many  miles  to  market,  eager  to  sell  his  produce  there ;  we 
see  another  man  busily  at  work  in  the  field ;  we  see  large 
barns  and  herds  of  cattle  in  many  country  places.  What 
does  it  all  mean  ?     Why  do  we  farm  ? 

The  main  business  of  farming  18  to  build  the  right  kind  of 
a  home.  Of  course,  means  must  be  provided  for  this,  and 
so  farm  operations  must  be  gainful,  but  not  necessarily  as 
an  end  in  themselves.  It  is  unfortunate  for  farmers  to  be 
so  interested  in  their  work  as  to  lose  all  taste  for  music, 
books,  art,  and  the  beautiful  in  nature.  An  appreciation 
of  these  things  would  greatly  enrich  their  lives,  and  so 
help  the  "  main  business "  of  farming.  It  is  true  that 
one  half  of  our  people  would  starve  if  they  were  not  fed 
by  the  farmers,  and  it  is  well  for  the  farmer  to  feel  that 
his  work  serves  mankind  as  well  as  himself ;  but  all  this 
does  not  change  the  main  issue  of  farming,  —  that  of  home 
building  for  the  farmer  and  his  family. 

61 


62 


THE  BUSINESS  OF  FARMING 


38.  Farming  a  Primary  Industry.  —  According  to  a  recent 
classification,  there  are  about  live  hundred  occupations 
followed  in  the  United  States.  These  are  grouped  under 
nine  different  headings  :  namely,  Agriculture,  Extraction 
of  Minerals,  Manufacturing  Industries,  Transportation, 
Trade,  Public  Service,  Professional  Service,  Domestic 
Service,  and  Clerical    Occupations.     These  are  grouped 


Farmers  Shipping  by  Rail. 

again  under  three  classes,  —  Primary  Industries,  Secondary 
Industries,  and  Personal  Service. 

Farming  has  always  been,  and  must  always  remain,  a 
primary  industry.  When  agriculture  declines,  trade  lags 
and  every  other  occupation  sooner  or  later  feels  the  effects. 
True,  farming  is  not  the  leading  industry  in  every  country, 
or  in  all  parts  of  our  country.  But  this  is  only  because 
the  farmer  now  finds  it  possible  to  ship  his  produce  to 
those  in  other  pursuits  even  at  great  distances,  and  in  this 
way  to  relieve  them  of  growing  their  own  table  supplies. 
Thus  Danish  farmers  supply  the  great  city  of  London 


FARMING  A   PRIMARY  INDUSTRY  63 

with  its  bacon,  butter,  and  eggs,  and  American  or  Austra- 
lian farmers  send  England  most  of  its  grain  food. 

In  America  there  is  an  army  of  over  10,000,000  workers 
with  their  families  engaged  in  agriculture.  But  compared 
with  the  number  of  those  engaged  in  personal  service,  and 
in  secondary  industries,  like  manufacturing,  this  vast  army 
is  becoming  smaller  and  smaller.  This  decline  has  been 
partly  explained  in  Chapter  II.  It  is  caused  largely  by 
the  progress  in  the  refinements  of  civilization.     Raw  mate- 


Farmers  Shipping  by  Boat. 

rials  are  produced  on  the  farm.  The  market  demands 
finer  and  finer  products  from  these  materials,  —  finer  and 
more  attractive  clothing,  sugar,  shoes,  and  the  like. 
Standards  of  living  are  rising.  Consequently,  an  increas- 
ing number  of  men  are  being  withdrawn  from  farm  work 
to  those  industries  that  elaborate  and  refine. 

As  was  stated  in  the  second  chapter,  the  invention  of 
new  machinery  will  continue  to  cause  men  to  shift  from 
one  or  the  other  of  these  groups  of  occupations.  The  per- 
fection of  the  reaper  meant  fewer  men  on  the  land  and 
more  in  the  mill.  Labor-saving  devices  in  the  mills  turn 
some  of  the  workers  back  to  the  land.     But  however  great 


64  THE  BUSINESS  OF  FARMING 

the  shift  from  one  business  to  another,  agriculture,  taking 
the  world  as  a  whole,  will  always  continue  to  be  a  primary 
and  fundamental  occupation.  Other  occupations  build  upon 
it  to  a  greater  degree  than  it  builds  upon  other  occupations. 

39.  When  is  a  Farmer  Successful  ?  —  A  man  succeeds,  in  a 
business  way,  if  he  makes  more  than  he  spends,  and  this 
business  success  is  necessary  to  most  other  success.  Be- 
fore one  can  have  music,  books,  or  other  means  of  fully 
satisfying  the  higher  life,  one  must  have  money  or  credit. 


A  Successful  Farm. 
Note  the  number  of  wheat  stacks. 

Credit  usually  comes  from  the  application  of  good  sense 
and  intelligence  to  business  ;  and  the  more  credit  the 
farmer  has,  the  greater  will  be  his  opportunities  to  grade 
up  his  stock,  install  improvements  and  conveniences,  and 
support  such  social  and  uplifting  activities  in  his  neighbor- 
hood as  will  awaken  rural  manhood. 

Among  the  most  successful  farmers  of  the  United 
States  are  those  of  southeastern  Pennsylvania.  Lancaster 
County,  for  example,  has  led  all  others  for  more  than  half 
a  century  in  the  valuation  of  farm  produce.  Its  soil  is  as 
rich  and  productive  to-day  as  it  was  two  generations  ago. 


EIGH  COST  OF  LIVING 


65 


The  farmers  produce  good  crops  of  corn,  wheat,  and  other 
staples  ;  and  they  also  support  schools  and  churches  gen- 
erously. In  the  long  run  the  type  of  institution  that 
feeds  the  mind  depends  upon  the  type  of  dairy,  tillage, 
and  orcharding  that  feeds  the  institution. 

But  the  material  success  is  desirable  mainly  for  the  sake 
of  the  higher  success  it  makes  possible.  Farming  must 
not  merely  support  life :  it  must  help  to  make  life  better 


«N  *  ?*»  '1 


•A 


A  Bumper  Potato  Crop. 

worth  living.  The  Lancaster  corn  and  tobacco  crops  are 
best  worth  while  because  they  flower  into  the  Lancaster 
schools.  A  farmer  is  fully  successful  only  if  he  enriches 
the  world  in  the  things  both  of  the  body  and  of  the  spirit. 
40.  High  Cost  of  Living.  —  The  cost  of  the  necessities  of 
life  has  been  rising  at  the  rate  of  about  one  per  cent  a 
year  for  the  last  two  decades.  It  is  often  thought  that 
the  only  cause  of  this  lies  in  the  farmer  himself ;  in  his 
lack  of  intelligence,  skill,  and  business  sense.  The  causes, 
however,  are  many,  far-reaching,  and  world-wide.  It  costs 
the  dairyman  more,  for  instance,  to  produce  the  high-grade 
milk  which  the  market  now  demands,   than   it   costs   to 


66  TUB  BUSINESS  OF  FARMING 

produce  the  low-grade  milk  which  the  market  allowed  a 
generation  ago.  More  men  are  required  to  produce  a  ton 
of  milk  under  modern  conditions  of  sanitation.  The  cows 
must  be  kept  clean,  and  be  fed  on  wholesome,  measured, 
and  balanced  rations ;    they  must  be  tested  for  tubercu- 


Making  Sure  of  Clean  Milk. 

Milk  produced  under  sanitary  conditions  commands  a  higher  price  than 
that  obtained  from  dirty  cows. 

losis ;  and  kept  in  a  barn  that  is  a  model  in  cleanliness  and 
construction. 

I 

The  milker  and  all  other  helpers  realize  that  they  are 
producing  a  food  that  is  readily  contaminated.  Conse- 
quently, special  utensils  must  be  provided  for  milking, 
cooling,  and  shipping ;  and  since  the  market  is  willing  to 
pay  for  the  extra  labor  and  investment,  the  price  advances 
as  the  cost  does.  So,  too,  to  run  a  commercial  orchard 
to-day  requires  an  investment  in  the  proper  applications 


AMERICAN  AND  EUROPEAN  FARMING 


67 


for  spraying,  cultivating,  picking,  grading,  and  packing 
the  fruit  of  which  our  fathers  never  heard.  As  the  tastes 
of  the  market  rise,  the  cost  of  supplying  the  superior 
quality  of  produce  must  also  rise. 

All  this,  however,  is  only  one  factor  in  the  rise  of  the 
cost  of  farm  produce.  The  profits  of  middlemen  cannot 
be  ignored ;  the  lack  of  cooperation  among  the  farmers 
themselves   is   involved ;    the    rise   in    rents,   tariffs,    and 


ii-  ^*^~i^'  ^^1^^"**''*  ^^^^^tBH  i^y 

PHI 

WmJ'     ^1 

n^i 

^^^^^^H 

^^^            ggacMh  .^3lH 

^^H 

^^^^^^^^^^H^^  ''*''   ^^^^^^1 

European  Peasant  Farmers. 

wages  is  a  thing  to  be  considered  ;  and  the  increase  in  the 
output  of  gold,  which  measures  the  value  of  produce,  is  of 
vital  concern.  Here  we  can  merely  mention  such  factors. 
41.  Different  Ways  of  Comparing  American  and  European 
Farming.  —  American  farmers  are  frequently,  but  unjustly, 
compared  with  those  of  England,  France,  Denmark,  and 
Germany  in  their  yields  per  acre.  Here  the  yield  of  wheat, 
corn,  potatoes,  barley,  and  other  important  crops  is  only 


68 


THE  BUSINESS   OF  FARMING 


about  one  half  that  of  the  countries  named.  Consequently 
it  is  often  thought  that  the  American  farmer  is  only  one 
half  as  efficient  as  his  brother  in  Europe,  and  that,  if  he 
would  double  his  output  to  the  acre,  prices  would  fall 
considerably. 

This  is  true  in  a  small  degree.  But  conditions  here 
and  abroad  differ  widely.  Around  Paris,  for  example, 
where  one  finds  intensive  types  of  European  agriculture, 


Intensive  Farming. 
Raising  ginseng. 

the  land  is  owned  mostly  by  city  people,  who  parcel  it 
out  to  tenants  of  the  peasant  class.  Out  of  a  few  acres 
the  peasants  must  support  themselves  and  their  families 
and  pay  their  rent.  "  Intensive  farming,"  on  the  order  of 
our  gardening,  is  the  only  farming  possible  on  these  high- 
priced  lands.  But  it  is  just  as  fair  to  compare  the  yields 
per  worker  as  the  yields  per  acre  ;  and  the  farmers  of  our 
country,  with  their  large  acreage  and  modem  machinery, 
far  exceed,  per  man,  the  output  abroad.* 

*  In  Crermany  76.4  per  cent  of  all  farm  holdings  are  under  124  acres  in  size. 
In  Eastern  Flanders,  Belgium,  inor«>  than  40  per  cent  of  the  farms  are  less 
than  12i  acres  in  sKjah.    The  size  of  the  average  American  farm  is  138  acres. 


DANGERS   OF  THE  TENANT  SYSTEM  69 

42.  Tenants.  —  In  the  United  States  37  farmers  out  of 
every  hundred  are  tenants,  or  renters,  of  the  farms  they 
work.  This  is  an  increase  of  thirteen  tenants  per  hundred 
farmers  since  1810.  In  some  sections  of  the  South  the 
proportion  of  tenant  farmers  exceeds  ninety  per  cent,  the 
large  majority  being  negroes. 

The  main  causes  of  the  tenant  class  are : 

(1)  Increase  in  the  price  of  land ; 

C2)  The  lure  to  the  centers  of  population  ; 

(3)  The  desire  to  make  safe  investments  by  men  of 
means. 

So  long  as  free  land  could  be  secured  from  the  govern- 
ment by  any  one  who  took  the  trouble  to  go  west  and  to 
establish  a  claim,  the  price  of  land  was  low  and  labor  was 
high.  When  the  supply  of  free  land  became  practically 
exhausted,  ten  or  twenty  years  ago,  land  values  began  to 
rise,  and  it  became  increasingly  difficult  for  men  of  meager 
means  to  buy  farms. 

43.  Dangers  of  the  Tenant  System.  —  John  Stuart  Mill,  a 
famous  English  writer  of  the  last  century,  held  that  small 
farms,  owned  by  those  who  work  them,  are  necessary  for 
individual  and  national  well-being.  Farm  tenancy  in 
America  is  not  necessarily  a  bad  thing.  Most  tenants  are 
young  farmers  for  whom  tenancy  is  a  stepping  stone  to 
ownership.  There  are  nevertheless  some  undesirable 
features  associated  with  it.  Tenants  are  apt  to  take  little 
interest  in  community  affairs.     As  a  rule  they  keep  less 


There  are  more  than  ten  times  as  many  people  to  the  square  mile  in  Germany, 
for  instance,  as  in  the  United  States,  or,  to  be  exact,  320  to  31.  Intensive 
cultivation  is  generally  a  necessity  abroad ;  but,  as  yet,  in  many  localities 
here,  it  is  not  yet  advisable.  Just  as  there  is  a  point  beyond  which  it  is  not 
profitable  to  add  an  additional  pound  of  weight  to  growing  steers,  just  so  there 
is  a  limit  to  higher  and  higher  yields  of  crops.  A  man  may  raise  forty  bushels 
of  wheat  to  the  acre  and  go  in  debt ;  another  may  raise  twenty  bushels  to  the 
acre  and  have  a  generous  income.  The  cost  of  production,  not  the  yield  per 
acre,  is  the  important  thing. 


70 


THE  BUSINESS  OF  FARMING 


live  stock  than  land-owning  farmers  do ;  and  this  means 
that  too  little  manure  is  produced  to  maintain  a  permanent 
soil  fertility.  Good  schools,  good  churches,  and  good 
roads  are  best  built  up  and  maintained  by  a  settled  popu- 
lation. A  tenant  who  is  continually  looking  for  a  better 
farm,  and  a  landlord  who  is  only  waiting  for  a  price  to 
sell  at  a  profit,  are  neither  of  them  likely  to  contribute 
anything  to  the  permanent  uplift  of  the  community. 


^^^^i^B^BBI 

Small  Fields  and  Tenant  Farms. 

44.  Farm  Labor.  —  The  average  American  wages  for 
farm  laborers  is  $16.40  per  month,  with  board  and  lodg- 
ing. The  hours  are  long  and  the  employment  is  irreg- 
ular. The  shorter  hours  and  higher  wages  of  the  cities 
attract  men.  The  scarcity  of  suitable  homes  in  certain 
sections  make  farm  labor  unattractive  to  married  men 
with  families.  Immigrant  laborers  do  not  look  with  favor 
upon  the  separation  from  their  countrymen  which  results 
from  employment  in  the  country. 

Farm  labor,  however,  lias  its  attractive  side.  Mill 
workers,  teamsters,  miners,  and  railroad  employees  are 
frequently  subjected  to  conditions  of  employment  that 
endanger  the  body  and  undermine  the  health.     Lawyers, 


FARM  LABOR 


71 


doctors,  and  other  professional  people,  while  rated  at  hav- 
ing a  better  income  than  farm  hands,  are  under  much 
heavier  expense.  In  addition  to  his  regular  wages,  a 
married  farm  hand  is  usually  allowed  the  use  of  a  little 


Farm  Labor. 
The  employer  and  the  "hired  man." 

land  for  the  growing  of  vegetables,  and  this  materially 
reduces  the  cost  of  supporting  his  family. 

Drudgery  on  the  farm,  too,  is  rapidly  passing.  ^  Much 
hard  work  is  now  performed  by  machinery.  The  farm 
laborer  is  becoming  a  machinist.     From  the  preparation  of 


"  I  emphatically  deny  the  common  notion  that  the  farm  boy's  life  is  drudg- 
ery. Much  of  the  work  is  laborious,  and  this  it  shares  with  all  work  that  is 
productive ;  for  the  easier  the  job,  the  less  it  is  worth  doing.  But  every  piece 
of  farm  work  is  also  an  attempt  to  solve  a  problem,  and,  therefore,  it  should 
have  its  Intellectual  interest ;  and  the  problems  are  as  many  as  the  hours  of 
the  day  and  as  varied  as  the  face  of  nature.  It  needs  but  the  informing  of  the 
mind  and  the  quickening  of  the  imagination  to  raise  any  constructive  work 
above  the  level  of  drudgery.  It  Js  not  mere  dull  work  to  follow  the  plow,  —  I 
have  followed  it  day  after  day,  —  if  one  is  conscious  of  all  the  myriad  forces 
set  at  work  by  the  breaking  of  the  furrow ;  and  there  is  always  a  landscape, 
the  free  fields,  the  clean  soil,  the  rain,  the  promise  of  crops.     Of  all  men's 


72 


THE  BUSINESS  OF  FARMING 


the  seed  bed  to  the  hauling  of  the  produce  to  market,  along 
the  entire  line  of  activities,  invention  is  lightening  the 
burdens  of  farm  life.  Rural  engineers  are  constantly  at 
work  on  new  devices,  —  self-feeders,  loaders,  shellers, 
pneumatic  stackers,  automatic  measures,  potato  diggers, 

manure  spreaders,  and 
numerous  contrivances 
that  multiply  the  grati- 
fication of  the  hired  man. 
One  factor  in  the 
difficulty  of  finding  farm 
help  is  altogether  good. 
This  is  the  way  in  which 
the  best  farm  laborers 
are  continually  working 
up  into  tenants  and 
land  owners.  The  re- 
port of  the  Country 
Life  Commission,  page 
39,  puts  this  thought 
well: 

"  So   long  as  the   United 

States  continues  to  be  a  true 

democracy    it    will    have    a 

serious  labor  problem.     As  a 

democracy  we   honor  labor, 

and  the  higher  the  efficiency 

of    labor    the    greater    the 

honor.     The    laborer,   if   he 

has  ambition  to  be  an  efficient  agent   in   the  development  of   the 

country,  will  be  anxious  to  advance  from  the  lower  to  the  upper 

form  of  effort,  and  from  being  a  laborer  himself  to  become  a  director 


Bad  Farming. 
Wheat  sprouting  before  it  is  harvested. 


labors,  the  farmer's  is  tbe  mo.st  creative.  I  cannot  help  wondering  why  it  is 
that  men  will  seek  work  in  the  grease  and  grime  of  a  noisy  factory,  but  will 
recuil  at  what  they  call  dirty  work  of  the  farm.  So  much  are  we  bound  by 
tradition."  — L.  H.  Bailey. 


BUSINESS  FAILURES  73 

of  labor.  If  he  has  nothing  but  his  hands  and  his  brains,  he  aims 
to  accumulate  a  sufficient  capital  to  become  a  tenant,  and  eventu- 
ally to  become  an  owner,  of  a  farm  home.  A  large  number  of  our 
immigrants  share  with  the  native-born  citizen  this  laudable  ambition. 
Therefore,  there  is  a  common  decrease  of  efficient  farm  labor  by  these 
upward  movements." 

45.  Business  Failures.  —  Agriculture  as  a  business  does 
not  lend  itself  well  to  large  units,  that  is,  to  the  manage- 
ment of  enormous  areas  and  the  investment  of  a  vast 
capital  under  the  direction  of  one  man.  A  few  men  may 
control  the  iron  or  oil  trade,  or  even  regulate  the  price  of 
meat  or  grain  after  they  have  been  marketed^  but  the  pro- 
duction of  these  necessities  is  mainly  in  the  hands  of  men 
of  small  capital.  A  record  of  the  failures  of  the  "  bonanza 
farmers,"  therefore,  may  pass  without  discussion  here. 
Nor,  even  for  the  small  farmer,  can  all  the  reasons  for  a 
lack  of  business  success  be  mentioned.  The  following 
ones  may  be  noticed: 

a.  Too  much  hook  learning.  Some  graduates  of  agricul- 
tural colleges  fail,  not  because  they  know  too  much  that 
is  useful,  but  because  they  experiment  too  much  with 
what  is  useless.  Theories  are  valuable,  but  there  must  be 
a  combination  of  brains,  brawn,  and  sense. 

h.  Too  little  book  learning.  Some  fairly  successful 
farmers  continue  in  the  "  calf  paths  "  that  were  made  by 
their  ancestors.  They  mistrust  improvements,  and  look 
upon  higher  education  with  misgivings.  They  lack  the 
open  mind  ;  they  will  not  read  ;  they  ignore  the  uplift 
that  comes  through  contact  with  men  of  wide  experience  ; 
they  become  self-centered,  selfish,  self-sufficient,  and  con- 
sequently can  show  only  decreasing  returns  for  their  labor. 

c.  Hostile  environment.  It  costs  about  twice  as  much 
to  produce  a  bushel  of  corn  on  a  steep  hillside  as  it  does 
on    a    rich    flood    plain,    a   few    hundred    yards    below. 


74  THE  BUSINESS  OF  FARMING 

Farmers  on  the  hill  slopes  of  New  England  are  working 
at  a  disadvantage  on  account  of  the  free  trade  with  the 
rich,  level  lands  of  the  West.  While  the  yield  per  acre  is 
higher  in  New  England  than  in  the  western  states,  yet  the 
cost  of  producing  crops  is  also  higher  on  account  of  the 
fact  that  large  machinery  cannot  be  used  on  the  slopes. 
Many  farms,  therefore,  have  been  abandoned  for  economic 
reasons,  and  are  now  growing  forests,  for  which  they  are 
better  adapted. 

d.  Personal  peculiarities.  Under  this  heading  may  be 
mentioned  such  weaknesses  in  certain  farmers  as  a  tend- 
ency to  laziness,  shiftlessness,  and  alcoholism.  Strong 
drink  and  laziness  have  darkened  the  prospects  of  many  a 
homestead. 

Practical  Questions 

1.  How  many  different  occupations  are  there  in  the  country?  In 
your  neighborhood  ?  2.  What  is  the  difference  between  trade  and 
transportation?  Public  service  and  domestic  service?  3.  In  what 
sense  is  farming  a  primary  industry?  4.  Explain  why  the  secon- 
dary occupations  are  gaining  over  the  primary  occupations.  5.  Is 
the  invention  of  machinery  a  benefit  to  the  fanner?  6.  What  is 
meant  by  success  in  farm  life  ?  7.  Is  it  possible  for  a  farmer  to  be  a 
failure  and  yet  be  making  more  than  he  spends?  8.  In  what  way  is 
the  farmer  affected  by  the  high  cost  of  living?  9.  State  and  discuss 
three  causes  that  raise  prices.  10.  What  is  a  tenant?  11.  To  what 
is  our  increase  of  tenancy  due  ?  12.  Do  tenants  take  as  much  care  of 
farm  properties  as  owners  do?  13.  Would  you  sooner  work  in  a 
mill  or  on  a  farm  ?  14.  Why  are  some  farmers  more  successful  than 
others  ? 

Home  Exercises 

1.  Make  a  study  and  keep  careful  records  of  one  farm  operation  as 
conducted  by  your  father.  Determine  the  gain  or  loss  per  cent  in  the 
operation,  and,  if  possible,  the  reasons  therefor. 

2.  Determine  the  per  cent  of  tenant  farmers  of  your  school  district 
and  compare  this  number  with  that  of  ten  years  ago. 


SUGGESTIONS  75 

3.  Ask  your  father  for  the  size  of  the  home  farm.     Who  has  the 
largest  farm  in  the  neighborhood? 

4.  Keep  a  record  for  one  week  of  the  prices  of  farm  produce  as 
given  in  a  city  paper. 


Suggestions 

1.  It  would  be  interesting  to  count  up  all  the  occupations  of  the 
school  district.  Write  the  names  on  the  board  and  the  number  of 
people  following  each.  Use  the  classification  of  the  Census  Bureau, 
given  at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter.  Is  the  number  of  different 
occupations  increasing?  Would  it  not  pay  the  farmer  to  do  his  own 
carpentering  and  blacksmithing  in  order  to  reduce  the  number  of 
separate  occupations? 

2.  If  any  facts  are  available,  it  would  be  instructive  to  find  out 
whether  a  farm  boy  who  has  left  home  has,  in  a  given  time,  actually 
saved  more  than  a  young  man  that  has  stayed  on  the  farm.  While 
farmers  seldom  become  millionaires,  yet  there  are  not  a  few  opportu- 
nities for  large  incomes  in  almost  every  rural  community.  Do  the 
farm  patrons  of  the  school  study  the  bodily  needs  and  wants  of  city 
people?  Every  farmer  can  spend  a  little  time  "just  browsing"  in 
the  city  market,  studying  the  whims  of  buyers.  He  can  then  better 
understand  why  some  sellers  get  more  for  their  produce  than  others. 
A  little  knowledge  of  human  nature  brings  better  returns  than  much 
information  on  soil  analysis. 

3.  A  list  of  "  Farmers'  Bulletins  "  is  appended  at  the  end  of  nearly 
every  chapter.  These  bulletins,  unless  otherwise  stated,  can  be  se- 
cured, in  most  cases,  free  of  charge  from  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  D.  C.  A  complete  list  of  all  bulletins  available  is  not 
given.  It  is  suggested  that  whenever  pupils  need  fuller  information 
on  certain  points  they  be  encouraged  to  hunt  for  it,  first,  at  their  own 
state  institutions,  and  then,  failing  to  find  it  there,  they  should  send 
to  Washington.  State  publications  are  not  often  cited  in  the  refer- 
ences, for  the  reason  that  such  publications  are  not  intended  primarily 
for  use  beyond  the  state  line.  Each  school  should  have  a  complete  set 
of  the  publications  of  its  own  state  and  of  those  of  Washington,  at 
least  a  complete  set  of  those  publications  which  treat  on  subjects  of 
local  interest.  Ordinarily,  bulletins  of  a  technical  nature  are  not  well 
adapted  to  school  purposes,  and  should  not  be  requested.  In  a  gen- 
eral way  local  aids  are  to  be  preferred  to  those  more  distant. 


76  TUB  BUSINESS  OF  FARMING 

Refrrrnces 

Country  Life.     The  Annals,  March,  1912. 
Chapters  in  Rural  Progress.     Butterfield. 
The  Farmers  Business  Handbook. 
The  Fat  of  the  Land.     Streeter. 
Book-keeping  for  Farmers.     Atkinson. 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  Washington,  D.  C. 
62.   Marketing  Farm  Produce. 

242.   An  Example  of  Model  Farming. 

280.   A  Profitable  Tenant  Dairy  Farm. 

325.   Small  Farms  in  the  Corn  Belt. 

437.   A  System  of  Tenant  Farming  and  its  Results. 

454.   A  Successful  New  York  Farm. 

635.   What  the  Farm  Contributes  Directly  to  the  Farmer's  Living. 


CHAPTER  VI 

EUEAL  CONVENIENCES 


Ah,  why 
Should  life  all  labor  he?  —  Tknnyson. 


46.  Motor  Power.  —  In  Chapter  II  the  statement  was 
made  that  the  invention  of  machinery  has  enabled  the 
farmer  to  do  more  work  than  formerly,  and  thus  has  re- 


A  Windmill  on  the  Farm. 

leased  some  farm  labor  to  other  occupations.  In  Chapter 
V  we  noted  briefly  that  machinery  has  also  done  away 
with  much  of  the  old  drudgery  for  those  who  remain  on 
the  farm.  This  second  fact  deserves  more  detailed  notice. 
It  is  important ;  for  the  drudgery  element  in  farm  work 
in  the  past  has  driven  away  many  who  could  have  ren- 
dered better  service  on  the  farm  than  elsewhere. 

77 


78  nURAL   CONVENIENCES 

A  motor  is  a  machine  that  transforms  energy  from  a 
form  that  is  useless  into  a  form  that  is  useful.  Windmills, 
a  kind  of  motor,  have  been  used  for  centuries  for  pumping 
water,  especially  in  Holland.  P'or  the  same  purpose  hi/- 
draulic  rams  are  widely  used.  The  rams  are  cheap  and 
easily  installed  ;  and  a  slight  flow  of  water,  if  it  be  steady, 
is  enough  to  keep  them  in  constant  operation. 

Perhaps  the  most  useful  motor  for  farm  work  is  the 
gasolene  engine.  Gasolene  engines  operate  wringers, 
separators,  saws,  vacuum  cleaners,  churns,  dynamos, 
threshers,  feed  grinders,  pumps,  silo  fillers,  milking  ma- 
chines, sewing  machines,  and  many  other  useful  contriv- 
ances. The  engines  are  easy  to  operate  ;  they  are  safe  ; 
and  they  are  made  in  different  units  of  power,  so  as  to 
meet  the  most  diverse  needs.  They  have  probably  done 
more  to  banish  drudgery  from  farm  life  than  any  other 
machine. 

Several  manufacturing  firms  are  beginning  to  sell  electric 
equipment  for  farm  work.  This  form  of  power  has  been 
used  in  rural  Germany  for  several  years.  In  many  places 
electric  power  is  transmitted  over  great  distances  into  the 
country  for  the  farm  and  household.  It  is  beginning  to 
replace  the  gasolene  engine  for  many  kinds  of  work. 
Electricity  is  clean  and  safe,  and  if  it  can  be  secured  at  all, 
it  can  be  used  in  any  place  and  at  any  moment. 

47.  The  telephone  has  become  a  very  important  aid  to  the 
farmer.  From  1902  to  1907  the  number  of  rural  telephones 
increased  threefold.  In  1910,  in  Iowa  and  Illinois,  there 
were  190,000  farms,  and  174,000  rural  telephones,  or  one 
for  almost  every  farm.  The  lot  of  the  farmer's  wife  is 
lonely  enough  at  best,  and  the  telephone  helps  to  satisfy 
her  longing  for  association  with  her  neighbors. 

Matters  of  business,  social  welfare  work,  and  conferences 
on  all  affairs  of  local  interest  find  the  telephone  a  helpful 


RURAL  MAIL   SERVICE 


79 


assistant.  It  means  a  great  saving  of  time  to  call  up  the 
village  store  for  needed  supplies  in  order  to  have  them  sent 
out  by  the  next  car,  or  by  some  neighbor  who  happens  to 
be  in  the  village.  When  haying  and  harvesting  are  in 
progress,  the  notice  of  a  probable  change  of  weather  may 
mean  the  saving  of  many  dollars.  In  some  places  "  Cen- 
tral "  reports  the  weather  forecast  daily  to  all  the  farmers 
on  the  line. 


Getting  the  Morning  Mail. 

48.  Raral  Mail  Service.  —  A  very  few  years  ago  country 
folks  had  no  government  delivery  or  collection  of  mail. 
To  post  a  letter  now  and  then,  or  to  find  out  whether  one 
lay  waiting  at  the  post  office,  the  farmer  himself  had  to 
drive  to  the  village — perhaps  over  many  miles  of  wretched 
roads.  Packages  of  more  than  four  pounds  could  be  sent 
or  received  only  by  freight  or  express,  and  express  rates 
were  extremely  high.  Under  such  conditions  the  farmer's 
family  sent  little  mail  and  received  little.  Now  the  par- 
cel post  and  the  daily  rural  mail  service  bring  to  his  door 
the  merchandise  of  a  distant  city  and  the  latest  news  of 


80  RURAL   CONVENIENCES 

the  world ;  and,  in  turn,  carry  liis  butter  and  new-laid 
eggs  to  profitable  city  customers,  —  all  at  very  cheap 
rates. 

In  1911,  when  rural  delivery  was  new,  41,359  carriers 
served  19,000,000  country  people  at  a  cost  to  the  govern- 
ment of  about  two  dollars  apiece.  This  cost,  it  was  found, 
was  repaid  by  the  increased  postal  business.  In  the  first 
two  years  after  "free"  service  was  extended  to  the  country, 
the  general  mail  matter  in  one  Maryland  county  increased 
90  per  cent. 

Then,  January  1,  1913,  the  parcel  post  was  started,  and 
the  volume  of  postal  business  grew  enormously.  A  year 
later  a  new  parcel  post  law  made  the  low  rates  still  lower, 
and  raised  the  weight  limit  on  packages.^  The  next  year 
(1915)  the  rural  mail  service  was  reorganized  and  greatly 
extended,  so  as  to  reach  nearly  all  the  farms  except  those 
in  exceedingly  isolated  and  inaccessible  districts. 

49.  The  trolley  and  automobile  have  taken  high  places 
among  the  farmer's  conveniences.  The  trolley  may  pass 
his  house  and  stop  at  his  front  gate.  With  little  expense, 
then,  he  can  take  his  family  to  the  village  or  city  store,  or 
send  his  freight  to  the  consumer.  The  number  of  auto- 
mobiles that  have  been  bought  by  farmers  in  recent  years 
proves  that  this  convenience  is  being  appreciated.  Many 
farmers  now  consider  the  automobile  a  necessity.  A  few 
miles  on  a  good  road  mean  very  little  to  the  man  at  the 
wheel.  The  farmer  can  travel  for  many  miles  with  speed, 
pleasure,  and  comfort,  to  compare  his  own  work  with  that 
of  his  neighbors,  or  to  do  his  marketing  and  to  carry  light 
produce  to  town.     The  automobile  truck,  also,  for  general 


1  In  1914  it  became  possible  to  send  by  mail  almost  any  package  under  60 
pounds  in  weight  to  any  point  less  than  150  miles  distant,  and  to  send  20-pound 
packages  to  any  point  in  the  United  States.  There  is  a  size  limit,  however, 
as  well  as  a  weight  limit  on  postal  parcels. 


A   SHORT  HISTORY  OF  ROADS  81 

delivery  purposes,  and  especially  for  long  hauls,  is  meeting 
with  high  favor  among  farmers. 

50.  Good  roads  are  among  the  foremost  conveniences  of 
rural  life.  Markets,  schools,  churches,  neighbors,  are 
made  more  accessible  by  them.  They  save  labor  and  time 
and  add  value  to  land  and  produce.  In  Chapter  IV  we 
learned  that  a  community  spirit  was  necessary  in  order 


The  Automobile  on  the  Farm. 

that  individual  farmers  may  receive  larger  returns  for  their 
labor.  But  this  community  spirit  has  little  chance  to  de- 
velop without  good  roads. 

51.  A  short  history  of  roads  helps  us  to  understand  their 
value.  The  ancient  Romans  covered  Europe  with  mag- 
nificent paved  roads,  two  thousand  years  ago,  in  order  to 
move  their  armies  easily  from  place  to  place.  But  after 
the  Roman  Empire  fell,  these  noble  highways  went  to  ruin; 
and  for  hundreds  of  years  European  roads  were  as  bad  as 
America  has  ever  seen.  The  modern  good-roads  movement 
began  in  England,  only  a  little  before  the  time  of  the 
American  Revolution.     Until  that  time,  even  England  had 


82 


RURAL  CONVENIENCES 


only  worn-out  dirt  roads,  over  which  merchandise  had  to 
be  carried  almost  wholly  by  pack  animals,  and  on  which  all 
travel  was  by  horseback  or  —  in  favored  districts  —  by  a 
slow  coach  toiling  along  four  miles  an  hour  behind  six 
horses,  with  an  occasional  overturn  in  one  of  the  many 
mudholes. 

Then,  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago,  England  began  to 
build  turnpikes  between  a  few  important  cities.     At  first  a 


Stone  Crusher. 


turnpike  was  merely  a  dirt  road  where  the  earth  was  turned 
in  toward  the  middle,  so  as  to  "  crown  "  the  road  and  let  the 
rain  water  drain  off  quickly  into  ditches  at  the  side.  In 
places,  gravel  or  crushed  stone  was  added  to  improve  the 
surface;  and  new  ditches,  when  needful,  drew  the  water 
away  from  the  sides  of  the  road.  It  was  found  that  if 
water  was  not  allowed  to  stand  on  the  road  or  at  its  side, 
the  surface  would  not  easily  be  cut  into  ruts  by  ordinary 
travel. 

Then,  in  1810,  John  MacAdam,  a  Scotch  engineer,  built 
a  few  miles  of  road  that  made  his   name   famous.     He 


OOOD  ROADS  AS  RURAL   CONVENIENCES  83 

placed  first  in  the  roadbed  a  layer  of  stones  about  three 
inches  through.  These  were  packed  firmly.  On  this 
layer  he  placed  another  layer  of  stones  about  one  inch  in 
diameter.  These  were  also  rolled  or  packed  firmly.  Then 
a  third  layer,  or  surface  dressing,  of  finely  crushed  stones 
was  placed  on  top,  and  likewise  packed  and  rolled.  Like 
the  other  turnpikes,  the  road  was  elevated  in  the  middle 
and  made  to  slope  gradually  toward  the  gutters  on  the 
sides,  receiving  in  this  way  a  smooth  and  hard  surface  and 
a  gentle  crown.  The  "  macadam  "  road  still  ranks  among 
the  best  of  highways  all  over  the  world. 

Until  after  1806  the  United  States  had  only  dirt  roads, 
from  which,  at  most,  the  brush,  stumps,  and  rocks  had 
been  removed.  Even  these  unimproved  roads  were  few  ; 
and  they  ran,  nearly  all  of  them,  east  and  west  —  joining 
some  Appalachian  district  with  an  Atlantic  port. 

The  first  movement  in  our  country  for  good  roads  grew 
out  of  the  needs  for  closer  union  between  the  eastern 
Appalachian  slope  and  the  Mississippi  valley.  In  1806 
Congress  made  an  appropriation  to  begin  a  highway  from 
Cumberland  in  Maryland  to  St.  Louis  ;  and  for  thirty 
years  more  the  government  gave  many  grants  of  money  to 
complete  and  repair  this  famous  "  National  Road,"  —  until 
its  place  was  more  than  taken  by  the  growth  of  railroads. 

The  present  good-roads  movement  in  America  is  still 
young.  It  received  its  first  impulse  largely  from  the  new 
needs  of  the  automobile.  Much  has  been  accomplished  in 
the  past  few  years,  though  we  are  still  shamefully  behind 
European  lands.  Perhaps  the  best  result  from  the  move- 
ment, so  far,  is  the  universal  conviction  that  good  roads 
are  vital  to  the  prosperity  of  any  farming  district. 

52.  The  further  discnssion  of  good  roads  as  rural  conveniences 
will  be  considered  under  the  heads  of  economy,  construc- 
tion, and  maintenance. 


84  BUBAL  CONVENIENCES 

a.  Economy.  Poor  roads  mean  poor  economy.  The 
following  are  the  results  of  an  extensive  investigation  in 
Europe  to  determine  the  average  cost  of  hauling  a  ton  a 
mile: 

Per  ton  per  mile 

On  earth  roads,  in  poor  condition 39  cents 

On  stone  roads,  in  good  condition  .....        8  cents 

The  Department  of  Agriculture  of  the  United  States  also 
made  a  similar  investigation  on  American  roads  with  the 
following  results  : 

Per  ton  per  mile 

On  earth  roads,  in  poor  condition 25  cents 

On  stone  roads,  in  good  condition 10  cents 

The  results  of  both  investigations  show  that  poor  roads 
are  expensive. 

h.  Construction.  In  nearly  all  European  countries  it  has 
been  the  common  practice  to  place  the  construction  and 
maintenance  of  roads  altogether  in  the  hands  of  expert 
road  engineers,  —  men  who  are  versed  in  the  technical  side 
of  road  building.  For  this  reason,  European  roads  are  usu- 
ally in  excellent  condition.  In  America,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  responsibility  for  the  building  and  the  upkeep  of  roads 
is  commonly  in  the  hands  of  men  who  have  never  made  a 
special  study  of  the  road  problem.  This  is  one  main 
reason  why  our  roads  are  inferior  to  those  abroad. 

The  essential  points  to  be  considered  in  the  construc- 
tion and  maintenance  of  roads  are:  (1)  grade,  (2)  foun- 
dation, (3)  surface,  (4)  crown,  (5)  gutter. 

By  the  grade  of  a  road  is  meant  its  rise  or  fall  from  a 
horizontal  plane.  The  ideal  grade  is  one  which  is  prac- 
tically level.  In  hilly  countries  a  level  grade  would  cost 
too  much  ;  but  much  can  be  done  merely  by  lowering  an 
elevation  here,  and  raising  a  valley  there,  along  the  level 
of  a  road.     Often  to  run  the  road  around  the  base  of  a 


GOOD  ROADS  AS  BUBAL   CONVENIENCES 


85 


hill  will  be  preferable  to  the  shorter  distance  but  steeper 
grade  across  the  hill. 

After  the  grade  has  been  established,  the  next  thing  is 
to  lay  the  foundation.  Turnpikes  and  "  macadam  "  roads 
have  been  explained  above.  Only  a  small  per  cent  of 
American  roads,  however,  are  "  macadamized."  More  than 
2,000,000  miles  of  our  roads  are  "dirt  roads."  That  is, 
they    have  no  foundation  except  the  natural  earth.     No 


Models  Illustrating  Road-Building. 
Cross-section  of  macadam  road  and  splitlog  drag. 

layers  of  stone  are  laid  down  and  rolled,  to  support  the 
smooth  surface.  The  dirt  road  will  probably  be  for  many 
years  the  kind  used  by  most  farmers.  Accordingly  it  is 
highly  desirable  to  make  it  as  good  as  possible. 

The  dirt  road  is  made  by  crowning  a  strip  of  land  from 
such  earth  as  is  found  close  beside  it.  If  there  are  gravel 
pits  near  by,  a  little  gravel,  spread  near  the  middle  of 
the  road,  improves  the  surface  and  helps  to  preserve  the 
crown.  Crushed  stone  is  even  better  for  the  surface,  but 
more  expensive.      Gutters,  or  ditches,  to  keep  the  rain 


86  RURAL  CONVENIENCES 

water  from  the  road,  are  even  more  important  than  with 
macadam  roads. 

0.  Maintenance.  An  ingenious  device  to  keep  dirt 
roads  in  good  condition  is  the  "split-log  drag."  This 
cheap  and  helpful  contrivance  was  invented,  not  many 
years  ago,  by  Mr.  D.  W.  King  of  Iowa.  In  its  original 
form  the  King  road  drag  is  simply  a  heavy  log  split  through 
the  middle,  the  two  pieces  being  then  joined  by  stout  bars 
of  wood  about  two  feet  long.     This  forms  a  double  scraper. 


Effect  of  Narrow  Tires. 

Horses  are  attached  to  this  drag  in  such  a  way  as  to  give 
it  a  slanting  movement.  By  drawing  it  along  first  one 
side  of  the  road  and  then  the  other,  especially  just  after  a 
rain  when  the  earth  is  soft,  the  loose  dirt  is  scraped  from 
the  side  toward  the  middle.  This  fills  ruts.  At  the  same 
time,  ridges  are  smoothed  awaj^  and  the  surface  is  more 
and  more  firmly  compacted. 

This  invention  is  improving  thousands  of  miles  of 
dirt  roads.  A  Massachusetts  road  official  reports  an  an- 
nual saving  of  five  sixths  of  the  road  tax  by  its  use.  Mr. 
King's  idea  has  been  copied  in  many  kinds  of  iron  drags; 
and  these  have  generally  replaced  the  primitive  split 
log. 


CONVENIENCES  IN   THE  HOUSE  87 

53.  Conveniences  in  the  House.  —  Failure  to  employ  modern 
methods  to  save  labor  within  the  house  works  a  needless 
hardship  upon  the  farm  woman.  Household  conveniences 
which  used  to  be  found  only  in  the  city  are  now  often 
available  in  the  country.  Many  a  farmer's  wife  finds  her 
life  easier  and  richer  thereby  ;  and  many  another,  who  is 
wasting  her  energy  and  impairing  her  health  by  struggling 
and  worrying  along  as  her  grandmother  did,  might  find  great 
relief  in  the  use  of  simple  and  inexpensive  conveniences. 


Effect  of  Broad  Tires. 

This  is  the  same  road  as  in  the  previous  picture.     Note  the  difference  in 
its  condition. 

a.  Running  water,  hot  and  cold,  both  for  bathroom  and 
kitchen,  saves  much  drudgery,  and  means  a  great  deal  for 
the  health  and  comfort  and  uplift  of  farm  life.  Often  the 
house  is  situated  lower  than  a  near-by  spring.  Under 
these  conditions  a  few  days  of  labor  and  a  small  exj^pnse 
for  pipes  will  bring  the  water  into  the  house.  If  it  is  not 
possible  to  use  a  hillside  spring  for  this  purpose,  perhaps  a 
hydraulic  ram  can  be  installed  beside  a  passing  stream 
to  pump  water  into  the  house,  as  is  described  above  (§  46). 
And  if  neither  of  these  simple  means  is  available,  then  a 
windmill  or  gasolene  engine  will  do  the  work. 


88  BUBAL   CONVENIENCES 

In  this  last  case,  an  elevated  tank  for  the  storage  of  the 
water  must  be  built.  The  tank  may  be  placed  in  the 
attic,  the  barn,  or  an  outside  tower.  Water  weighs  62.5 
pounds  per  cubic  foot,  and  a  large  tank  in  the  attic  would 
hardly  be  safe.  A  description  of  the  details  of  construc- 
tion and  operation  of  such  a  tank  (or  of  the  air-pressure 
tank  that  is  also  used  for  this  purpose)  can  be  obtained 
readily  from  dealers  in  windmills  and  in  farm  water  sys- 
tems. The  windmill  and  tank,  and  especially  the  air- 
pressure  water  system,  are  somewhat  costly  to  install. 
But,  like  all  permanent  improvements,  they  add  to  the 
selling  value  of  the  property;  and  if  the  first  cost  can  be 
afforded,  the  subsequent  running  expense  is  very  small. 
In  any  case,  the  farmer  who  provides  a  windmill  for  his 
cattle  has  no  excuse  for  not  extending  its  use  to  his  wife. 

b.  Furnace.  A  furnace  in  the  cellar  will  heat  the  en- 
tire house.  In  a  large  house  it  does  the  work  of  many 
stoves.  Evenness  of  temperature  is  desirable  in  all  the 
rooms  that  are  commonly  used.  Otherwise  the  entire 
family  will  be  likely  to  live  in  the  warmest  room,  usually 
the  kitchen.     This  is  not  sanitary. 

Steam,  hot-air,  and  hot-water  heating  systems  have  each 
their  advocates.  For  a  large  building  with  a  good  flue, 
steam  is  generally  preferred.  Steam  heating  requires  a 
good  fire  constantly.  Hot  air  and  hot  water  as  carriers 
of  heat  are  more  economical  in  small  houses  than  steam. 
Whatever  system  is  used,  it  should  be  accompanied  by  an 
adeq^uate  system  of  ventilation.  Fresh  air  within  the  house 
is  strangely  neglected  in  many  country  houses. 

e.  The  kitchen  is  the  workshop  of  the  home.  It  may 
be  called  the  center  of  farm  activities.  It  should  be  well 
planned,  having  a  convenient  pantry,  ice  box,  modern 
range,  and  a  convenient  arrangement  of  necessary  articles 
in  constant  use,  such  as  pots  and  pans. 


CONVENIENCES  IN   THE  HOUSE  89 

The  kitchen  range  is  perhaps  the  most  important  ma- 
chine on  the  farm.  It  is  used  much  of  every  day;  and  so 
to  buy  a  poor  one  is  wasteful.  A  good  steel  range  will 
last  a  lifetime  and  give  satisfaction  daily.  The  range 
should  be  plain;  trimmings  and  ornaments  are  hard  to 
keep  clean  and  are  not  artistic.  Steel  wool  is  an  excellent 
and  inexpensive  material  for  cleaning  the  range  and  the 
metal  ware  used  about  it. 


^ 

Wi^ 

Kitchen  Conveniences. 

In  selecting  granite  ware,  linoleum,  rag  rugs,  ice  box, 
and  other  necessary  articles  for  the  kitchen,  there  should 
be  harmony  in  the  color  scheme.  The  cost  is  no  more  ; 
and  such  harmony  adds  much  to  the  attractiveness  of  the 
home.  A  bright  and  clieerful  kitchen,  in  which  conven- 
ience, health,  and  comfort  are  kept  in  view,  means  a  great 
deal  in  making  country  life  satisfying. 

Practical  Questions 

1.  How  does  machinery  influence  drudgery?  2.  What  is  meant 
by  motor  power?  3.  Name  three  kinds  of  work  on  the  farm  in 
which  a  motor  is  used.       4.   Discuss  the  use  of  the  gasolene  engine. 


90 


RURAL  CONVENIENCES 


5.  What  farm  work  might  be  done  by  electricity?  6.  Discuss  the 
advantage  of  the  rural  telephone.  7.  Give  some  facts  on  the  prog- 
ress made  in  installing  rural  telephones.      8.   In  what  way  is  the  rural 

mail  service  a  convenience? 
9.  How  may  running  water 
be  introduced  into  a  rural 
home?  10.  What  are  some 
of  the  advantages  of  a  fur- 
nace in  the  cellar?  11.  Dis- 
cuss five  conveniences  of  the 
rural  kitchen.  12.  In  what 
way  are  good  roads  conven- 
iences? 13.  How  do  high- 
ways of  all  kinds  influence 
national  life?  14.  Give 
some  facts  showing  that  good 
roads  are  economical.  15.  Describe  the  construction  of  a  macadam 
road.     16.    What  is  the  "split-log  drag"  and  how  is  it  used? 


Handy  Farm  Implement. 

This  combined  sled  and  wagon  is  con- 
venient for  moving  plows,  harrows, 
wood,  and  so  on. 


Home  Exercises 

1.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  conveniences  of  your  house  and  barn. 
Indicate  by  a  sketch  the  location  of  all  the  buildings  with  reference 
to  the  public  highway,  and  indicate  on  the  same  sheet  where  the 
buildings  might  have  been  located  with  greater  regard  to  present 
convenience. 

2.  Draw  an  outline  map  of  your  township,  locating  the  public  roads. 
By  using  the  circumference  of  a  carriage  wheel  as  a  unit  of  measure, 
estimate  the  number  of  miles  of  highways  in  the  township.  Can  you 
find  out  whether  the  farm  buildings  determine  the  location  of  the 
highways  or  the  highways  determine  the  location  of  the  farm  build- 
ings ?    Could  the  roads  be  more  conveniently  located  ? 

3.  Let  us  suppose  that  it  would  cost  $  100  to  obtain  running  water 
in  the  house.  Then  if  your  mother's  time  is  worth  ten  cents  an  hour, 
would  the  labor  saved  in  carrying  water  equal  the  interest  on  the 
investment  ? 

Suggestions 

1.  A  trip  by  the  class  to  some  home  to  study  the  gasolene  engine 
would  be  instructive.  The  name  and  use  of  each  p>art  should  be 
noted.     If  this  trip  cannot  be  taken,  the  gasolene  engine  may  be 


REFERENCES  91 

assigned  to  some  member  of  the  class  whose  father  has  one,  as  a 
special  lesson.  A  drawing  of  the  parts  on  the  blackboard  by  this 
pupil  should  be  expected.  But  no  discussion  about  the  engine  in  its 
absence  is  so  valuable  as  an  explanation  of  it  while  it  is  before  the 
class. 

2.  If  possible  procure  a  telephone  outfit  and  explain  its  construc- 
tion. 

3.  Make  a  model  of  a  macadamized  road.  This  can  be  done  on  a 
board  placed  on  the  desk.  Place  some  clay  on  the  board  for  the  bed. 
Upon  the  clay  arrange  different  sized  stones  in  layers.  On  top  put  a 
dressing  of  sand.     It  can  readily  be  explained  how  the  large  stones  in 


Grain  Elevators. 
A  convenience  in  the  Wheat  Belt. 

the  bottom  prevent  the  rise  of  water  from  below  and  thus  keep  the 
road  dry  and  hard.  Sprinkle  some  water  on  the  completed  model. 
In  a  short  time  pull  apart  a  section  of  it.  Note  the  absence  of  water 
between  the  large  stones. 

4.    Make  a  model  "  split-log  drag  "  from  the  description  given.     Ex- 
plain its  operation  on  the  model  road. 

References 

Constructive  Rural  Sociology.     Gillette. 
The  Farmstead.     Roberts. 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture.     Bailey. 
Country  Life.     The  Annals,  March,  1912. 


92  RURAL   CONVENIENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins.     Washingtx)n,  D.  C. 

126.     Practical  Suggestions  for  Farm  Buildings. 

270.     Modem  Conveniences  for  the  Farm  Home. 

338.     Macadam  Roads. 

342.     A  Model  Kitchen. 

505.     Benefits  of  Improved  Roads. 

Sewage  Disposal  for  Rural  Homes.     Wisconsin,  No.  34. 
Reading  Courses /or  Farm  and  Farm  House.     Ithaca,  N.  Y. 


PART   II 

THE   SOIL  AND   ITS   IMPROVEMENT 

CHAPTER   VII 

THE  SOIL 


A  soil,  to  be  fertile,  must  above  all  things  be  light  and  pliable,  and 
this  condition  we  seek  to  bring  about  by  the  operation  of  plowing. 

—  Virgil. 

54.   Soil  and  Life.  —  The  ancients  used  to  say,  "  The  earth 
is  the  mother  of  us  all." 


This  statement  is  liter- 
ally true.  The  soil  sup- 
plies us  with  the  means 
of  life.  In  great  meas- 
ure, all  living  beings 
are  organized  soil  par- 
ticles. Plants  and  ani- 
mals and  human  bodies 
are  made  up  of  sub- 
stances which  occur  in 
a  simple  state  in  nearly 
every  handful  of  earth. 
Man  cannot  use  these 
simple  substances  di- 
rectly as  food,  but  plants 
can  and  do ;  and  man 
and  all  the  higher  animals  live  on  plants  or  on  other 
animals  which  thrive  on  plants. 

93 


Clod  of  Soil  Magnified. 

This  soil  is  said  to  be  not  "in  good 
tilth,"  as  the  particles  are  bunched,  not 
loose  and  granular. 


94  TUE  SOIL  AND  ITS  IMPROVEMENT 

Not  only  does  the  soil  supply  the  materials  out  of 
which  we  build  our  bodies,  but  it  also  produces  the  sub- 
stances with  which  we  clothe  our  bodies,  —  cotton,  linen, 
silk,  and  wool.  Even  such  articles  of  commerce  as  lumber 
are  gifts  of  the  soil  to  man.  ^lany  articles,  too,  which  are 
dug  out  of  the  earth  (not,  however,  from  the  "soil,"  as 
the  farmer  uses  the  terra)  are  useful  to  us.  Iron,  coal, 
paint,  building  stones,  cement  are  either  rocks  or  their 


Relative  Sizes  of  Soil  Particles. 
From  left  to  right :  clay,  silt,  sand,  gravel. 

products.  And  rocks,  as  we  shall  learn,  come  in  time  to 
form  the  bulk  of  the  soil.  Truly,  "  the  earth  is  the  mother 
of  us  all." 

55.  What  Soil  Is.  —  The  term  soil  is  used  frequently  in 
this  book.  What  is  soil?  It  may  be  defined  as  the  loose 
surface  material  that  covers  the  land  and  in  which  plants 
usually  grow.  Pick  up  a  handful  of  soil  and  examine  it. 
It  is  made  up  of  many  different  substances,  —  little  stones, 
gravel,  sand,  and,  if  allowed  to  dry,  of  a  fine  powder.  Bits 
of  partly  decayed  plants  and  parts  of  insects  may  also  be 
noticed  if  we  use  a  microscope.  If  we  examine  the  dust 
with  a  magnifying  glass,  it  is  seen  to  be  composed  of  par- 


VARIATIONS  OF  SOIL  PARTICLES 


95 


tides  of  different  sizes,  and  each  particle  looks  much  the 
same,  under  the  glass,  as  do  the  larger  ones  to  the  naked 
eye.  The  spaces  separating  the  minute  fragments  are,  of 
course,  filled  by  air  or  water ;  and  we  know  that  soil  con- 
tains moisture,  because  so  often  it  is  damp.  Soil,  then,  is 
surface  material,  made  up  of  waste  or  fragments  of  rocks, 
of  organic  matter,  and 
of  small  particles  of  air 
and  water. 

56.  The  varying  de- 
grees of  fineness  or  coarse- 
ness of  the  soil  particles 
are  expressed  by  the 
names  cZay,  silt,  sand, 
gravel,  and  stone. 

a.  Clay  is  formed  of 
very  small  soil  particles. 
They  are  so  small  that 
it  would  take  at  least 
5000  of  them  laid  side 
by  side  to  reach  one 
inch.  The  largest  par- 
ticles of   clay,   the   red 

corpuscles  of  our  blood,  and  the  green  corpuscles  (chlo- 
rophyll bodies)  of  plants  are  all  about  the  same  size. 
If  a  bit  of  moist  clay  is  rubbed  between  the  fingers,  it 
is  found  to  lack  grit.  A  clay  soil  is  hard  to  drain  be- 
cause its  very  fine  grains  will  not  allow  the  water  to  pass 
through.  In  drying,  clay  tends  to  form  a  hard,  compact 
mass,  through  which  it  is  difficult  for  plant  roots  to  pene- 
trate. If  plowed  when  wet,  it  becomes  puddled,  as  when 
a  small  boy  makes  marbles  out  of  wet  clay.  Clay  lands 
are  cold,  stiff,  heavy,  and  difficult  to  work,  although  they 
hold  water  well  and  are  unusually  rich  in  plant  food. 


Clay. 

The  largest  particles  of  clay  are  about 
^sVts  0^  3.n  inch  in  diameter. 


96 


THE  SOIL  AND  ITS  IMPROVEMENT 


1 


h.  Silt  is  a  term  used  to  define  soil  particles  next  larger 
than  clay.  A  silt  particle  is  so  small  that  it  would  re- 
quire 600  of  the  largest  ones  placed  side  by  side  to  extend 
one  inch.  A  silt  soil  is  slightly  lighter  and  more  porous 
than  a  clay  soil.  Like  clay  it  retains  moisture  and  fer- 
tility very  well,  and  is,  therefore,  well  adapted  for  corn  and 
grain,  especially  during  dry  seasons.  Both  clay  and  silt  if 
properly  worked  will  become  granular  or  open ;  that  is, 

many  of  these  tiny  par- 
ticles unite  into  little 
masses  or  granules  and 
thus  resemble  sand. 

c.  Sand.  Soil  made 
up  of  particles  larger 
than  those  that  form  silt 
is  called  sand.  The 
United  States  Bureau 
of  Soils  recognizes  dif- 
ferent grades  of  sand 
based  on  the  size  of  the 
particles.  Sand  parti- 
cles run  from  one 
twenty -fifth  to  one  two- 
hundredth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Soils  containing  con- 
siderable sand  are  called  lights  because  they  are  easily 
worked.  A  cubic  foot  of  dry  sand,  however,  really  weighs 
more  than  a  cubic  foot  of  dry  clay.  Pure  sand  is  mostly 
quartz  (a  mineral  closely  related  to  glass),  and  it  contains 
little  food  ready  for  plant  use. 

d.  Q-ravel.  Tiny  bits  of  rock  between  one  twelfth 
and  one  twenty-fifth  of  an  inch  in  size  form  gravel. 
Gravel  differs  still  more  from  clay  than  sand  does,  and  it 
dries  out  even  faster  than  sand. 

e.  The   term    itone  in    agriculture   refers  to   all   rock 


Sand. 
Seen  under  the  microscope. 


WHERE  THE  ROCK  PARTICLES   COME  FROM  97 

masses  over  one  twelfth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Very 
large  stones  are  called  rocks.  Stones  form  a  surface  cover 
to  prevent  evaporation  from  the  soil  beneath  them,  and  so 
far  they  are  helpful  to  farming.  A  boy  sometimes  likes 
to  turn  over  the  flat  stones  in  a  field  to  see  the  insects 
scamper  away  from  beneath  it.  They  had  been  drawn  to 
the  place  by  the  moisture  under  the  stone. 


Bottle  of  Soil  Sifted. 
Each  pile  is  in  front  of  the  sieve  through  which  it  came. 

57.  Where  Do  the  Rock  Particles  Come  From  ?  —  Except 
for  the  size  of  their  particles,  there  is  little  difference, 
as  far  as  appearances  go,  between  sand,  silt,  clay,  gravel 
and  stones.  It  is  possible  to  go  to  a  ledge,  and,  detaching 
a  large,  rocky  mass,  to  crush  it  with  a  hammer,  first  into 
stones,  then  into  gravel,  next  into  sand,  then  into  silt, 
and  finally  into  clay.  In  fact,  when  rocks  are  crushed 
for  road  building  or  concrete  work,  this  is  what  the  crusher 
actually  does.  (The  crusher,  of  course,  makes  all  the 
different  sizes  at  one  blow.) 

Now  there  are  natural   forces  that  produce  the  same 


98 


THE  SOIL  AND  ITS  IMPROVEMENT 


result  as  the  liammer  or  the  road  crusher.  These  forces, 
however,  act  more  silently,  and  their  operation  is  fre- 
quently unnoticed.  When  the  earth  was  young,  there 
was  no  soil  upon  it,  but  only  a  hard,  rocky  crust,  like 
that  which  often  appears  on  hillsides  where  the  soil  has 
been  removed.     Silently  and  slowly,  through  long  periods, 


Disintegration. 
A  limestone  ledge  breaking  up  and  forming  soil. 


nature  crushed  and  refined  the  outer  surface  of  these 
rocks  by  means  of  two  different  processes  :  namely,  disin- 
tegration and  decomposition. 

a.  Disintegration  is  a  physical  process.  That  is,  by  it 
rock  particles  are  pulled  apart  without  their  nature  being 
changed.  You  have  perhaps  noticed  a  bottle  of  water  left 
standing  outdoors  for  a  few  days  during  a  cold  part  of  the 
winter.  The  water  froze  and  broke  the  bottle.  A  tre- 
mendous force  must  have  been  exerted  in  breaking  the 
bottle.  When  the  temperature  of  water  drops  from  four 
degrees   centigrade    to   zero,   or    the   freezing   point,   it 


WHERE  THE  ROCK  PARTICLES   COME  FROM 


99 


expands  ;  and  as  it  expands  it  exerts  enormous  power  in 
order  to  find  room  for  itself.  Go  to  a  quarry  and  notice 
the  numberless  cracks,  joints,  and  fissures  in  the  rocks. 
These  openings  were  formed  mainly  by  freezing  water 
during  the  winter.  Many  rock  masses  are  rent  asunder 
by  this  power.     Usually,  at  the  foot  of  a  rocky  ledge  we 


How  Roots  Hold  the  Soil. 

The  soil  has  been  removed  from  these  roots  to  show  how  they  penetrate 
and  prevent  its  washing  away. 

may  see  large  masses  of  fragments  which  are  the  results 
of  this  kind  of  disintegration. 

In  our  science  studies  we  have  learned,  no  doubt,  about 
many  other  physical  forces  that  break  up  the  solid  rocks. 
We  know  that  glaciers  have  acted  as  gigantic  plows  in 
breaking  loose  and  carrying  away  and  crushing  up  enor- 
mous quantities  of  rocks  ;  and  we  know,  too,  that  erosion 
is  still  working,  more  gently  but  unceasingly,  to  the  same 
end. 


100 


THE  SOIL  AND  ITS  IMPROVEMENT 


h.  Decomposition  is  a  chemical  process ;  its  work  is 
done  by  changing  tlie  composition  of  the  particles.  Kocks 
nut,  as  iron  does.  That  is,  their  surface  particles  com- 
bine with  oxygen  from  the  air.  Then  the  powdery  rust 
particles  are  easily  removed.  Rocks  are  also  acted  upon 
by  certain  acids  which  the  decay  of  organic  matter  forms 
in  the  soil.  In  this  way  parts  of  the  rocks  are  dissolved  ; 
and  then  they  are  carried  away  by  running  water.  De- 
composition and  disintegration  fre- 
quently work  together,  in  this  way,  on 
the  same  rock,  each  aiding  the  other 
in  forming  soil. 

58.  Hnmiu.  —  Humus  is  partly  de- 
cayed vegetable  and  animal  matter  in 
the  soil.  It  is  found  in  a  pure  state 
around  rotten  stumps.  The  greater 
part  of  humus  comes  from  plants  that 
have  decayed  in  the  presence  of  mois- 
ture and  of  the  oxygen  in  the  air. 
Humus  is  a  very  important  part  of  the 
soil.     It  has  the  following  uses  : 

(1)  It  makes  the  soil  lighter  and 
more  porous,  thus  improving  its  con- 
dition. 

(2)  It  helps  the  soil  to  hold  heat 
and  moisture. 

(3)  It  supplies  food  for  growing  plants. 

(4)  It  promotes  the  growth  of  useful  bacteria. 
Humus  is  obtained  from  roots,  stubbles,  and  manures, 

which  are  plowed  under  and  left  to  decay  in  the  soil. 
Usually  it  makes  the  surface  soil  darker  than  the  subsoil, 
or  what  lies  below  the  reach  of  the  plow.  In  fact  the 
color  of  the  soil  is  often  taken  as  an  indication  of  the 
amount  of  humus  present. 


Soil  Auger. 

Used  for  examining 
soils  at  different  depths 


SOIL  AIR 


101 


59.  The  Kinds  of  Productive  Soil.  —  For  farming  we  do 
not  want  the  soil  to  contain  much  stone  or  gravel,  nor  do 
we  want  pure  sand  or  pure  clay.  We  want  a  mixture  of 
sand,  silt  and  clay,  with  some  hnmas.  Such  a  soil  is  called 
loamy.     All  productive  soils  are  usually  loamy. 

Loam  is  a  soil  that  is  intermediate  between  sand  and 
clay.  It  is  not  so  open  and  porous  as  sand,  or  so  stiff 
and  tenacious  as  clay.     That  is,  it  is  a  mixture  of  sand, 


\' 


Studying  Soils. 
Students  using  the  soil  auger  to  get  samples  of  soils. 

silt,  and  clay,  together  with  some  humus  and  of  course 
with  air  and  moisture.  The  major  portion  is  silt.  A 
sandy  loam  contains  more  sand  than  clay ;  a  clay  loam, 
more  clay  than  sand.  For  general  farm  purposes  a  medium 
or  average  loam  is  preferred,  especially  if  it  contains  a 
large  amount  of  humus. 

60.  Soil  Air.  —  The  spaces  between  soil  particles  are 
occupied  either  by  air  or  water.  Both  are  necessary  for 
plant  roots.  If  we  completely  submerge  ,the  roots  of  a 
potted  plant  in  a  pail  of  water,  the  plant  soon  turns  yel- 


102  THE  SOIL  AND  ITS  IMPROVEMENT 

low  and  dies.  That  is  because  the  roots  can  no  longer 
get  air.  Low  areas  in  fields  that  are  flooded  during  the 
summer  show  the  same  result.  Trees  along  the  sidewalk 
often  die  because  the  pavement  shuts  off  the  air  from  the 
roots.  Certain  trees,  like  willows,  thrive  beside  streams, 
because  their  roots  can  use  some  of  the  air  in  the  running 
water. 

Soil  in  a  good  state  of  cultivation  has  nearly  half  its 
volume  filled  with  air  and  water.  Mixed  with  this  "  soil 
air"  there  is  usually  more  carbon  dioxide  than  is  found 
in  the  air  above  the  surface.  This  larger  amount  of  car- 
bon dioxide  comes  from  the  decay  of  vegetable  matter  in 
the  soil. 

61.  Water  in  the  Soil. — Soil  is  not  productive  unless  it  con- 
tains water.  All  other  needful  ingredients  may  be  pres- 
ent in  proper  quantities,  and  yet  the  soil  will  give  small 
yields  if  moisture  is  insufficient.  There  is  an  old  saying 
that  soil,  like  a  chain,  is  as  weak  as  its  weakest  link,  and 
that  the  moisture  is  often  the  weakest  link  in  soil  fertility. 

Plants  use  an  enormous  quantity  of  water  in  their 
growing  season.  An  average  crop  of  corn  needs  8  inches 
of  rainfall  to  mature  it,  allowing  nothing  for  evaporation 
or  percolation.  It  has  been  estimated  that  an  acre  of 
cabbage  draws  from  the  soil,  and  throws  off  into  the 
air,  500,000  gallons  of  water  in  one  summer,  and  that 
an  oak  tree  with  700,000  leaves  transpires  in  this  way 
about  180  gallons  of  water  daily.  Plants  must  have  this 
vast  amount  of  water  for  a  number  of  reasons.  For  in- 
stance, it  is  the  water  within  them  which  transports  the 
food  material  from  the  soil  to  their  leaves.  In  order 
that  a  plant  may  get  out  of  the  soil  something  like  an 
ounce  of  earthy  matter  it  must  absorb  nearly  a  barrel  of 
water  for  this  purpose  alone. 

Plant  substance,  too,  like  the  human  body,  is  largely 


CAPILLARY   WATER 


103 


water.  Nine  tenths  of  the  weight  of  some  common  plants 
is  water.  In  a  very  dry  season,  or  in  a  dry  place,  too 
much  of  this  essential  water  evaporates  from  the  body  of 
a  plant,  and  the  plant  wilts.  This  is  because  the  water 
was  needed  to  fill  out  its  body,  and  to  give  it  substance 
and  stiffness. 

Water  exists  in  the  soil  both  as  free  water  and  as  film 
water.  If  a  tin  can  is  filled  with 
pebbles  and  water,  and  if  then  a 
small  hole  is  made  in  the  bottom  of 
the  can,  the  free  water  will  run  out, 
and  leave  the  film  water  coating 
the  pebbles.  So  while  the  free  wa- 
ter can  be  drained  off  the  land,  the 
film  water  cannot  be. 

62.  Capillary  Water.  —  Film  water 
is  often  called  capillary  water.  The 
word  "capillary"  means  hair-like, 
and  it  refers  to  the  hair-like,  irregu- 
lar spaces  between  the  small  soil 
particles.  It  is  in  these  spaces  that 
film  water,  or  capillary  water,  is 
found.  By  placing  the  corner  of  a 
blotter  in  a  little  water,  one  can  see 
how  capillary  water  behaves.  The 
water  rises  through  the  blotter 
rapidly   at    first,    and    then    more 

slowly.  The  rise  is  due  to  the  attraction  which  the  paper 
fibers  have  for  the  water  films.  This  is  known  as  film 
attraction,  or  capillary  attraction.  In  the  soil,  capillary 
attraction  tends  to  transfer  water  from  its  moist  parts  to  its 
dry  parts.  This  transfer  may  be  in  any  direction,  —  up, 
down,  or  sidewise. 

The  amount  of  capillary  water  which  a  soil  can  hold 


Capillary  Attraction. 

The  height  of  the  water 
in  the  tubes  varies  in- 
versely with  the  size  of 
the  bore. 


104  THE  SOIL  AND  ITS  IMPROVEMENT 

depends  on  the  extent  of  surface  of  the  soil  particles,  A 
cubic  foot  of  coarse  sand  will  hold  one  third  its  bulk  of 
water.  Only  a  part  of  this  water,  however,  is  eapil- 
lary  water,  that  is,  water  which  clings  to  the  surface  of  the 
grains.  We  have  learned  in  arithmetic  that  surfaces  in- 
crease as  the  squares  of  their  like  dimensions  while  solids 
increase  as  the  cubes  of  their  like  dimensions.  A  grain  of 
sand  has  a  greater  surface  in  proportion  to  its  size  than 
a  pebble  has.  Therefore  a  cubic  foot  of  sand  will  hold 
more  capillary  water  than  a  cubic  foot  of  pebbles. 

63.  Preventing  Loss  of  Capillary  Water.  —  Farmers  give  a 
great  deal  of  attention  to  preventing  the  needless  escape 
of  capillary  water  from  the  soil,  since  nearly  all  the  water 
absorbed  by  plants  is  of  this  sort.  When  the  sun  shines 
bright  again  after  a  heavy  rain,  the  surface  of  the  soil  soon 
becomes  hard  and  compact,  forming  a  crust.  Pick  up  a 
small  block  of  such  crust  and  look  for  air  spaces  in  it. 
They  are  exceedingly  small.  In  other  words,  the  soil  par- 
ticles are  fine  and  close  together.  Such  a  condition  (ac- 
cording to  the  statements  in  the  last  paragraph  above) 
hastens  the  movement  of  soil  water  to  the  surface,  from 
which  it  is  evaporated  and  lost  to  the  crop. 

The  way  to  prevent  this  rapid  loss  is  to  break  up  the 
crust  into  loose  particles  with  the  hoe,  harrow,  or  cultivator. 
By  the  use  of  tliese  tools  a  dry  mulch  is  formed  at  the 
surface  of  the  soil,  and  the  widely  separated  particles  of 
this  mulch  draw  up  the  capillary  water  from  below  very 
slowly.  Of  course,  some  moisture  continues  to  evaporate; 
but,  by  renewing  the  mulch  every  few  days,  the  loss  can 
be  kept  very  small.  Top  dressings  of  straw  or  manure, 
and  cover  crops  like  rye  and  clover,  are  also  effective 
mulches.  Moreover,  when  plowed  under  and  turned  into 
humus,  such  substances  enable  the  soil  to  bold  more 
capillary  water. 


DRAINAGE  105 

64.  Free  water  shuts  out  the  air  from  the  soil.  Bacteria 
must  have  air  ;  and  so  free  water  hinders  the  growth  of  soil 
bacteria.  More  heat  is  necessary  to  warm  a  quantity  of 
water  than  to  warm  the  same  bulk  of  earth;  and  so  free 
water  makes  the  soil  cold.  Frequent  rains  in  spring  some- 
times flood  fertile  parts  of  a  farm  and  delay  seeding 
enough  to  shorten  the  growing  season  seriously  or  even 
fatally  to  the  year's  crop. 

In  these  three  ways,  then,  free  water  on  the  soil  is  harm- 
ful to  farming.  It  is  capillary  water  upon  which  nearly 
all  farm  plants  depend.  But  the  supply  of  capillary  water 
is  kept  up  from  the  free  water.  A  chief  problem  for  many 
farmers,  therefore,  is  to  keep  up  the  proper  supply  of 
capillary  water  bi/  securing  enough  free  water  at  all  times 
without  having  too  much  of  it  at  any  one  time. 

If  the  water  from  the  clouds  would  fall  in  every  place  at 
the  desirable  time  in  quantities  just  sufficient  to  supply  the 
capillary  water  needed  by  the  crops,  there  would  be  no 
free-water  problem.  But  rains  are  not  always  dependable; 
and  some  land  needs  more  water  than  other  land  close  by 
that  gets  the  same  rainfall.  So  the  farmer  must  often 
drain  lands  which  are  too  wet,  or  irrigate  lands  which  are 
too  dry. 

65.  Drainage.  —  There  are  nearly  75,000,000  acres  in  the 
United  States  which  are  unproductive  because  they  are  too 
wet  and  marshy.  "  Bottom  lands  "  and  swamp  lands  are 
common  in  almost  every  state.  In  many  districts,  entire 
cultivated  fields,  or  parts  of  fields,  are  drowned  during 
parts  of  the  year.  Some  of  this  wet  land  cannot  be 
drained,  because  there  is  no  lower  place  near  it  to  which 
the  water  can  be  carried,  but  much  of  it  can  be  drained. 

Drainage  carries  away  the  useless  or  harmful  water.  It 
lowers  the  "  water  table,"  or  the  level  at  which  free  water 
stands  in  the  ground.     Thus  it  opens  to  cultivation  many 


106  THE  SOIL  AND  ITS  IMPROVEMENT 

districts  that  could  not  otherwise  be  farmed  at  all;  and  on 
old  farm  lauds  it  corrects  the  three  evils  named  above  due 
to  too  much  free  water.  That  is,  it  admits  air  and  bac- 
teria to  more  soil,  and  so  gives  the  plant  roots  more  soil  to 
feed  in.  It  makes  it  easier  for  the  sun  to  warm  the  soil. 
It  lengthens  the  growing  time  upon  certain  lands. 

Artificial  drainage  is  not  needed  in  an  open,  porous  soil, 
such  as  we  find  in  sandy  or  gravelly  regions.  It  is  the 
hard,  compact,  clayey  soils  which  hinder  the  escape  of  the 
surplus  water  and  which  need  to  be  drained  by  the  farmer. 
There  are  two  methods  of  effecting  drainage,  —  the  open 
method  and  the  closed  method. 

66.  Open  drainage  means  the  use  of  open  ditches  or  sur- 
face drains  as  water  carriers.  These  ditches  are  expected 
only  to  remove  the  surplus  water  in  times  of  flooding. 
Their  size  and  cost  depend  entirely  on  local  conditions. 
The  greater  the  territory  to  be  drained,  the  greater  must 
be  the  capacity  of  the  ditches.  In  the  Central  West 
many  miles  of  these  surface  drains,  extending  through 
many  farms,  have  been  constructed  by  farmers  working 
together.  Side  or  lateral  drains  run  into  the  mains.  The 
main  ditch  may  be  perhaps  eight  feet  deep  and  twenty 
feet  wide.  Large  dredging  machines  are  used  in  digging 
these  large  ditches. 

The  first  cost  of  open  ditches  is  less  than  that  of  closed 
drains ;  but  they  take  up  a  good  deal  of  the  farm  area, 
cut  up  the  farm  inconveniently,  and  cost  much  labor  and 
trouble  to  maintain. 

67.  Closed  Drainage.  —  The  second  method  of  effecting 
drainage  is  by  closed  drains  underground.  This  method 
has  certain  advantages  over  the  former.  No  valuable  sur- 
face land  is  used ;  the  farm  is  not  disfigured  and  cut  up ; 
and  if  the  drains  are  properly  made,  they  last  a  life  time. 

The  most  simple  kind  of  closed  drain  is  made  by  plow- 


CLOSED  DRAINAGE  107 

ing  and  shoveling  out  a  deep  gutter,  as  for  a  surface  ditch, 
and  then  partly  filling  it  with  large  stones,  which  are 
afterward  covered  with  earth  and  soil.  The  water  from 
the  soil  at  the  sides  drains  into  this  stony  space  readily, 
and  escapes  at  the  bottom  or  along  the  slope. 

Where  stone  is  at  hand,  this  kind  of  drain  costs  only  a 
little  more  than  the  open  drain.  In  time,  however,  fine 
particles  of  earth  and  soil  will  work  down  between  the 


Ditching  Machine. 
This  saves  time,  labor,  and  expense. 

stones  and  interfere  with  the  further  passage  of  water. 
The  stone-filled  drain  is  not  so  lasting  as  some  other  kinds 
of  closed  drains.  Hollow  tiling  makes  a  better  filling  for 
the  drain  than  stone,  and  it  is  now  used  extensively. 

These  tiles,  made  of  concrete,  are  made  in  sections  only 
two  feet  or  three  feet  long,  and  with  different  diameters. 
A  large  main  ditch  may  call  for  a  twelve-inch  tiling,  if 
much  water  is  to  be  carried ;  but  the  lateral  drains  will 
use  smaller  tiling. 


108 


THE  SOIL  AND  ITS  IMPROVEMENT 


68.  Number  and  Grade  of  Drains.  —  In  lieavy  clay  soils 
more  drains  are  needed  than  in  soils  where  there  is  an 
admixture  of  sand,  because  in  the  latter  natural  drain- 
age is  better.  In  clay  bottom  it  is  a  good  plan  to  place 
the  "side  drains  about  sixty  feet  apart,  while  in  lighter  soil 
one  hundred  feet  or  more  is  the  proper  distance.  Tlie 
grade  or  fall  of  the  main  ditch  should  be  at  least  an  inch 

to  eighty  feet,  and  the 


fall  of  the  side  drains 
should  be  an  inch  to 
twenty  feet. 

69.  Does  Drainage 
Pay?  —  The  drainage  of 
water-soaked  lands 
yields  a  large  income  on 
the  investment.  Pro- 
fessor Waid  describes 
some  experiments  made 
by  the  Massachusetts 
Experiment  Station. 
Ordinary  land  was  used 
for  the  test.  Before 
drainage  it  had  pro- 
duced a  rotation  of  corn, 
potatoes,  rye,  and  clo- 
ver. The  same  rotation  was  followed  for  four  years  after 
drainage.  The  second  four  years  gave  an  increased  yield 
of  twenty-five  per  cent,  on  the  average,  over  the  average 
yield  of  the  four  years  before  drainage.  Professor  Waid 
shows  that  this  increase,  at  market  prices,  amounted  to  a 
profit  of  forty-one  per  cent  on  the  cost  of  drainage. 

70.  Irrigation  is  used,  as  drainage  is,  to  secure  the  proper 
amount  of  soil  water;  but  it  is  used  under  conditions  just 
the  opposite  to  those  that  make  drainage  profitable.     Irri- 


Part  of  an  Irrigation  Dam. 


IRRIGATION  109 

gation  is  the  process  of  supplying  dry  lands  with  water 
sufficient  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  growing  plants. 

Irrigation  is  practiced  in  certain  sections  of  the  West  on 
a  large  scale.  Immense  quantities  of  water  are  conveyed 
directly  to  the  farmer  by  ditches  from  distant  sources,  — 
lakes,  rivers,  or  artesian  wells,  —  having  suitable  elevation. 
Occasionally  it  is  necessary  first  to  pump  the  water  into 
large  reservoirs  to  obtain  a  suitable  supply  and  elevation. 
Millions  of  dollars  have  been  spent  by  the  government  and 
by  private  individuals  in  installing  irrigation  plants ;  and 
thousands  of  acres  which  would  otherwise  be  unproductive 
are  in  this  manner  made  to  produce  luxurious  crops. 

Water  gates  regulate  the  flow  of  water  from  the  reser- 
voir into  the  main  ditch,  which  carries  it  toward  the  plains 
below.  At  proper  distances,  lateral  ditches  branch  off  on 
either  hand,  and  from  these  again  new  laterals,  until  the 
land  is  intersected  by  a  network  of  canals.  Each  ditch, 
large  or  small,  has  its  water  gate,  and  some  ditch  reaches 
each  farm  in  the  district.  At  a  given  farm,  the  water  is 
admitted  from  the  public  ditch  to  the  farmer's  private  ditch 
when  needed  ;  and  from  this  ditch  it  is  conducted  over  the 
land  at  will  by  shallow  furrows  to  be  taken  into  the  soil. 

A  similar  system  of  irrigation  is  employed,  on  a  much 
smaller  scale,  in  many  ordinary  farming  districts  by  the 
truck  farmer.  Truck  plants  are  sensitive  to  drought,  and 
if  the  trucker  must  depend  on  the  uncertain  rainfall,  his 
profits  will  often  disappear.  Irrigation  enables  him  to  do 
away  with  this  uncertainty. 

In  place  of  this  ditch-and-furrow  irrigation,  some 
truckers  use  an  overhead  system  which  supplies  the  water 
in  imitation  of  natural  rain.  Perforated  pipes,  an  inch  or 
two  in  diameter,  are  erected  on  supports,  high  enough  to 
allow  cultivation  of  the  soil  beneath  them,  and  they  are 
so  arranged  over  the  field  that  by  operating  a  lever  one  or 


110 


rilE  SOIL  AND  ITS  IMPROVEMENT 


more  series  of  these  pipes  will  sprinkle  water  over  parts 
of  the  garden  jDatches.  Except  on  cloudy  days  the  sprin- 
kling is  done  during  the  morning  or  evening. 

Practical  Questions 

1 .  In  what  sense  is  the  earth  a  mother  ?  2.  Name  all  the  differ- 
ent articles  obtained  from  the  earth.  3.  Can  you  think  of  anything 
more  important  than  soil  ?  4.  Define  soil.  5.  Of  what  substances 
is  soil  composed?  6.  What  is  soil  texture?  7.  Explain  the  terms 
clay,  silt,  sand,  and  gravel.  8.  How  is  soil  formed  ?  9.  Distin- 
guish between  disintegration  and  decomposition.  10.  Of  what 
value  is  humus?      11.    How  would  you  show  the  need  of  soil  air? 

12.  How  may  a  needed  sub- 
stance in  the  soil  be  the 
weakest  link  in  soil  fertility? 

13.  Explain  the  difference 
between  film  water  and  free 
water.  14.  How  do  farm- 
ers prevent  the  loss  of  cap- 
illary water?  15.  How  does 
free  water  injure  crops? 
16.  Explain  the  purpose  of 
drainage.  17.  How  does  irri- 
gation differ  from  drainage  ? 

Home  Exercises 

1.  Make  a  sketch  of  your 
farm,  or  of  a  farm  you  know, 
marking  off  the  fields.  Look 
carefully  for  differences  in 
the  soil  texture  of  the  differ- 
ent fields.  If  you  notice  any 
differences,  indicate  them  on 
the  sketch. 

2.  Take  a  sample  of  the 
darkest  soil  you  can  find  on  the  farm  and  a  sample  of  the  lightest 
colored.  Examine  them  carefully  and  note  the  differences.  From 
what  parts  of  the  farm  were  these  samples  taken? 

3.  What  is  the  average  thickness  of  the  surface  soil  on  your  farm? 

4.  Does  any  part  of  your  farm  need  drainage  or  irrigation? 


Pumping  Water  to  Irrigate  Farm 
Lands. 


REFERENCES  111 

Suggestions 

1.  The  study  of  the  nature  of  soils  can  be  made  most  interesting 
and  profitable,  if  the  pupils  are  taken  on  a  soil  excursion.  A  spade 
or  soil  auger  should  be  taken  along.  Note  which  is  the  lighter  in 
color,  the  surface  soil  or  the  subsoil.  Note,  too,  which  contains  the 
greater  amount  of  humus,  and  how  far  down  the  roots  of  different 
plants  extend. 

2.  To  show  the  action  of  capillary  water,  fill  three  lamp  chimneys, 
one  with  fine  sand,  another  with  clay,  and  the  third  with  gravel. 
Press  down  the  soil  somewhat  with  a  stick.  Tie  cheesecloth  over 
the  top  of  each  chimney,  and  invert  them  in  a  shallow  dish  of  water. 
Note  how  rapidly  the  water  rises  in  each.  Explain  the  reason  for 
this  difference. 

3.  To  show  that  soil  contains  air,  throw  a  small  handful  into  a 
glass  of  water  and  watch  the  air  bubbles  rise.  To  measure  the  exact 
amount  of  the  soil  air,  fill  a  quart  jar  with  the  soil  to  be  measured. 
From  another  jar  add  water  slowly  until  no  more  will  be  absorbed. 
The  water  takes  the  place  of  the  soil  air.     Find  the  per  cent  of  soil  air, 

4.  To  show  that  soil  water  contains  plant  food,  take  a  glassful  of 
clear  water  from  a  ditch  or  pond  and  evaporate  it  for  several  days  on 
a  fairly  warm  part  of  the  stove.  Do  you  notice  a  deposit  on  the  side 
of  the  glass?    What  is  it? 

References 

Fertility  of  the  Soil.     Roberts. 

Soils.     Burkett. 

Soils  and  Crops  of  the  Farm.     Morrow  and  Hunt. 

The  Fertility  in  Illinois  Soils.     Bulletin  No.  123. 

Soils.     Minnesota  Bulletin  No.  41. 

Humus  in  Its  Relation  to  Soil  Fertility.     Year  Book,  1895. 

The  Storage  and  Use  of  Soil  Moisture.     Nebraska  Bulletin  No.  140. 

Farmers'  Bulletins.     Washington,  D.  C. 

245.   Renovation  of  Worn-out  Soils. 

624.   Tile  Drainage  on  the  Farm. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
PLANT  FOOD 


Jt  is  not  the  land  itself  that  constitutes  the  farmer's  wealth,  but  ii 
is  the  constituents  of  the  soil  which  serve  for  the  nutntion  of  plants. 

—  LlEBIO. 

71.  The  Soil  and  the  Plant.  —  In  the  last  chapter  we 
studied  a  few  points  about  the  soil,  and  learned  among 
other  things  that  the  soil  is  the  natural  home  of  plants. 

We  will  now  inquire 
more  especially  what  the 
plant  finds  in  the  soil  to 
feed  upon. 

Plants  modify  a  part 
of  their  body  into  what 
we    call    rootSy    to    take 
hold  upon  the  soil  and 
to  secure  certain  kinds 
of  nourishment  from  it. 
The  roots  of  plants  must 
extend  far  enough  into 
the  soil  to  enable  their 
thread-like  outgrowths, 
called  root-hair »^  to  reach 
the      desired     nourish- 
ment ;  and  the  soil  should  not  be  so  hard  as  to  prevent 
them  from  penetrating  into  it  for  the  required  distance. 
Nearly  all  the  common  farm  plants  feed  from  the  "  sur- 
face  soil."     This  is   the   part   we   plow   and   pulverize. 

112 


Root  Hairs  on  Wheat  Roots. 

Through  the  walls  of  these  tiny  hairs 
plant  food  passes  to  the  root  proper. 


THE  SOIL  AND   THE  PLANT 


118 


When  the  soil  can  be  easily  pulverized,  and  contains 
plenty  of  organic  matter,  it  is  said  to  be  in  good  tilth. 
This  condition  is  favorable  for  root  growth.  It  enables 
the  roots  to  extend  themselves  more  readily  between 
and   around  the  loose  particles,  and  it  makes  easy  the 


Soil  in  Good  Tilth. 


work  of  the  delicate  root  hairs  through  which  the  plant 
absorbs  its  food. 

Plants  require  not  only  that  the  soil  be  in  good  tilth, 
but  also  that  it  contain  such  plant  foods  as  they  need  and 
that  it  have  these  foods  in  such  a  state  as  to  be  usable. 
Soil  water  holds  some  carbon  dioxide  (a  gas),  which  comes 
from  the  air,  and  various  mineral  substances  in  solution 
—  as  water  in  a  cup  may  hold  salt  or  sugar  in  solution. 
Plants  absorb  soil  water  through  their  roots.  Most  of  it 
they  give  off  again  through  their  leaves  —  but  first  they  take 
from  it  such  of  the  minerals  as  they  can  use  for  food.  A 
fertile  soil  must  have  a  sufficient  supply  of  soil  water  and 
the  necessary  mineral  substances  for  this  water  to  take  up 
to  feed  plants.    We  will  now  see  what  these  plant  foods  are. 


114 


PLANT  FOOD 


72.  Plant  Foods.  —  About  eighty  distinct  elements  ^  are 
known  to  the  chemist.  Thirteen  of  these  are  used  by 
plants.  The  following  table  names  these  thirteen  and 
gives  some  facts  about  them. 


Nitrogen 
Phosphorus 
iPotassium 
Calcium 

Chlorine 

Iron 

'Magnesium 

Silicon 

Sodium 

Sulphur 

Nitrogen 
Carbon 
Hydrogen 
Oxygen 


These  four  elements  are  supplied  by  the 
soil,  but  soil  is  likely  to  be  deficient  in 
one  or  more  of  them,  and  then  the  farmer 
must  supply  the  need. 


These  six  elements  also  are  supplied  by  the 
soil.  None  of  these  elements  need  be  sup- 
j)lied  by  farmers. 

These  four  elements  are  supplied  by  the 
air  and  the  water.  Tliey  are  always  pres- 
ent if  the  soil  is  not  lacking  in  water.  A 
combination  of  carbon  and  oxygen  forms 
the  gas  called  carbon  dioxide  ;  and  a  com- 
bination of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  forms 
water. 


The  farmer,  then,  needs  only  to  attend  to  the  supply 
of  soil  water  and  of  the  four  elements  in  the  first  group 
above.  The  supply  of  soil  water  has  been  discussed, 
briefly,  and  the  matter  will  receive  more  attention  later. 
The  supply  of  calcium,  the  main  substance  in  lime,  and 
one  of  the  four  important  elements,  will  be  treated  in  the 
next  chapter.  The  present  chapter  will  now  deal  with 
the  other  three  elements, — nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and 
potassium.  These  are  sometimes  called  the  three  great 
agricultural  elements. 

1  An  element  is  a  substance  which  cannot  be  resolved  into  different  kinds 
of  substances.  Air  was  once  called  an  element,  but  it  is  no  longer  called  so, 
because  chemists  have  found  how  to  separate  it  into  different  gases.  Each  of 
these  gases,  however,  like  oxygen  or  nitrogen,  is  an  element. 


HOW  NITROGEN  ENTERS   THE  SOIL 


115 


73.  Nitrogen  is  a  gas,  slightly  lighter  than  air.  It  lacks 
color,  taste,  and  odor.  It  does  not  combine  easily  with 
other  substances,  and  its  compounds  break  up  very  readily. 
It  makes  up  four  fifths  of  the  air,  and  it  is  probably  the 
most  important  food  element  for  both  plants  and  animals. 
Neither  plants  nor  animals,  however,  can  make  use  of  it 
in  its  free  state,  as  it  is  found  in  the  air.  They  can  take 
it  only  from  certain  compounds,  and  the  compounds  of 


''Sm 


->  >,, 


tiSi^:^ 


'^:$4!M'^*^.c  •>*    .-i^.*^ 


Curly  Kale. 
The  heavy  crop  shows  abundance  of  plant  food  in  the  soil. 

nitrogen  which  are  usable  by  plants  are  not  common. 
Much  money  and  effort  are  expended  to  get  these  com- 
pounds into  the  soil. 

74.   Nitrogen  enters  the  soil  to  become  available  for  plants 
in  four  ways:   (1)  through  the  use  of  barnyard  manure; 

(2)  through  the  decay  of  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  ; 

(3)  through  commercial  fertilizers  placed  in  the  soil ; 
and  (4)  through  the  use  of  legumes,  such  as  clover  and 
peas,  with  certain  bacteria  on  their  roots. 

a.    Ammonia  gas  can  often  be  smelled  in  fresh  manure 


116  PLANT  FOOD 

piles.  This  gas  contains  about  eighty  per  cent  nitrogen. 
The  soil  absorbs  ammonia  to  a  marked  degree  and  'changes 
it  to  available  compounds  of  nitrogen.  Even  ammonia 
itself  is  slightly  available  for  the  uses  of  plants,  but  not 


Nodules  on  Bean  Roots. 
Where  the  nitrogen-gathering  bacteria  grow. 

to  the  extent  of   other  nitrogen   compounds,  which   are 
called  "nitrates." 

h.  Ammonia  is  also  set  free  for  plant  growth  when  the 
decay  of  vegetable  matter  forms  humus.  In  a  general 
way  it  may  be  said  that  the  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the 
soil  is  in  proportion  to  the  humus  it  contains. 


PHOSPHORUS  117 

c.  Nitrate  of  soda,  or  Chile  saltpeter,  contains  about 
fifteen  per  cent  nitrogen ;  and  dried  blood,  tankage,  and 
bone  meal  carry  from  three  to  fifteen  per  cent  nitrogen. 
These  last  three  fertilizers  are  products  of  the  slaughter- 
house. In  all  these  commercial  compounds,  nitrogen  costs 
three  to  four  times  as  much  as  an  equal  weight  of  phosphoric 
acid  or  potash  in  their  commercial  compounds. 

d.  The  best  way  to  get  nitrogen  into  the  soil  is  to  grow 
clover  or  alfalfa  or  other  leguminous  plants  in  a  rotation 
upon  it.  The  ancient  Chinese  said,  "  Beans  are  good 
for  the  ground  "  ;  but  they  did  not  know  why  it  was  so. 
We  know  now  that  plants  of  the  clover  family  assist  the 
growth  of  certain  bacteria  in  the  soil  about  their  roots, 
and  that  these  bacteria  "fix"  free  nitrogen  from  the  air 
into  compounds  suitable  for  plants  to  use.  Nearly  all 
crops  leave  the  soil  poorer ;  but  clover  crops  usually  leave 
it  richer  by  the  addition  of  this  costly  and  essential  food 
for  other  crops. 

75.  In  the  world  of  life,  nitrogen  is  the  great  builder. 
All  protoplasm,  the  primary  substance  out  of  which  all 
organisms  build  their  bodies,  contains  this  element. 
Work  may  go  on  for  a  time,  or  heat  may  be  produced, 
without  nitrogen  ;  but  no  plant  or  animal  structure  can 
be  built  up  without  its  aid.  It  does  not  build  alone,  but 
its  presence  is  always  required  for  building.  A  little 
nitrate  of  soda,  scattered  on  the  sod  beneath  a  languish- 
ing tree,  will  commonly  tend  to  stimulate  its  growth  and 
tint  its  foliage  with  a  healthy  green  color. 

76.  Phosphorus  forms  the  principal  element  of  phosphoric 
acid,  —  a  compound  of  phosphorus  and  oxygen,  one  pound 
of  phosphorus  forming  nearly  three  and  one  third  pounds 
of  phosphoric  acid.  Pure  phosphorus  is  a  straw-colored 
solid,  having  the  consistency  of  beeswax.  The  whitish 
smoke  which  appears  when  a  phosphorus  match  is  first 


lis  PLANT  FOOD 

lighted  is  phosphoric  acid.  As  a  plant  food  phosphoric 
acid  is  obtained  from  manure,  from  phosphate  rock,  from 
slag  and  manure,  and  from  bones  and  other  waste  ma- 
terials of  meat-packing  houses.  Phosphate  rock  is  some- 
times treated  chemically  to  reduce  it  to  phosphoric  acid 
before  it  is  used  on  the  land ;  but  sometimes  it  is  merely 
crushed  and  then  applied  directly  to  the  soil.  In  this 
second  case  it  is  converted  into  plant  food  very  slowly. 
Animals  separate  their  food  roughly  into  bones  and 
manure.  Bones  are  rich  and  manure  poor  in  phosphoric 
acid.  But  manure  contains  potash  while  bones  do  not. 
Hence  when  we  return  bones  and  manure  to  the  soil,  we 
give  back  to  it  in  a  measure  what  the  animals  remove 
from  it. 

Phosphoric  acid  aids  in  the  transfer  of  protein  (see 
Chapter  XXVI)  in  the  plant,  and  is  especially  necessary 
for  the  formation  of  seeds. 

77.  Pure  potassium  is  a  silvery  white  metal,  tinted 
with  a  pale  blue  color.  It  ignites  when  thrown  on  water, 
burning  with  a  violet  flame.  Like  phosphorus,  it  is  a 
deadly  poison  in  its  pure  state,  but  it  is  seldom  or  never 
found  in  that  state  in  nature. 

With  oxygen  it  forms  a  compound  called  potash,  —  the 
form  in  which  we  know  it  best.  One  pound  of  potassium 
forms  one  and  one  fourth  pounds  of  potash.  Most  of  our 
potash  comes  from  Germany.  The  crude  rock  is  there 
mined  under  such  names  as  kainit,  camallit,  Bylvinit, 
hartsalz,  and  steinsalz.  These  rocks  run  about  twelve 
per  cent  potash.  Hardwood  ashes  contain  from  two  to 
twelve  per  cent  pota.sh,  ordinarily  averaging  about  six 
per  cent. 

The  function  of  this  plant  food  is  twofold:  it  is 
needed  in  the  transfer  of  carbohydrates  such  as  sugars, 
and  for  the  growth  of  seeds. 


AMOUNT  OF  PLANT  FOOD  IN  THE  SOIL 


119 


78.  Amount  of  Plant  Food  in  the  Soil.  —  An  acre  of 
average  productive  soil  to  the  depth  of  6^  inches,  rep- 
resenting the  amount  usually  turned  over  in  plowing, 
weighs  about  2,000,000  pounds  and  will  contain  nearly 
8000  pounds  of  nitrogen,  2000  pounds  of  phosphorus,  and 
35,000  pounds  of  potassium.  This,  however,  is  a  rough 
estimate  only.  The  nitrogen  content  may  vary  from  1000 
to  35,000  pounds  ;  the 
phosphorus  from  160  to 
15,000  pounds ;  and  the 
potassium  from  3000  to 
60,000  pounds.  In  some 
soils  there  is  scarcely 
any  lime  at  all;  in 
others  the  lime  runs  as 
high  as-  20  piEir*  cent. 

While  there  are  enor- 
mous quantities  of  po- 
tential plant  food  in  an 
average  soil,  yet  only  a' 
small  fraction  of  it  is 
liberated  as  available 
plant  food  during  an  av- 
erage season  of  average 

farming.     That  is,  two  • 

per  cent  of  the  nitrogen  (8000  x  .02  =  160  pounds  of 
nitrogen)  ;  one  per  cent  of  the  phosphorus  (2000  x  .01  =  20 
pounds  of  phosphorus)  ;  and  \  of  one  per  cent  of  potassium 
(35,000  X  .0025  =  87.5  pounds  potassium)  is  estimated  to 
be  liberated  in  one  season.  In  other  words  the  surface  soil 
to  the  depth  of  6|  inches  should  have  resources  enough  to 
supply  the  nitrogen  for  50  years,  the  phosphorus  for  100 
years,  and  the  potassium  for  400  years,  even  were  we  to 
ignore  all  additional  plant  food  from  whatever  source. 


Sweet  Clover  on  Shallow  Limestone 
Soil.- 


120  PLANT  FOOD 

Let  us  examine  two  common  crops  as  corn  and  clover  liay 
and  note  to  what  extent  they  withdraw  fertility  from  the 
soil.  A  SO-bushel  crop  of  corn  removes  about  74  pounds 
of  nitrogen,  12  pounds  of  phosphorus,  and  35  pounds  of 
potassium.  A  ton  of  clover  hay  removes  about  40  pounds 
of  nitrogen,  5  pounds  of  phosphorus,  and  30  pounds  of 
potassium.  By  a  simple  calculation  we  can  determine  how 
many  years  we  could  expect  these  yields  if  we  knew  our 
soil  resources.  But,  unfortunately,  the  question  is  not  so 
simple.  A  soil  may  be  non-productive  and  yet  be  very 
fertile  so  far  as  these  chemical  elements  go.  Tliat  is,  there 
may  be  an  abundance  of  these  elements  present,  but  other 
substances,  acids,  alkalies,  vegetable  poisons,  or  an  excess 
of  free  water  perhaps,  may  by  their  harmful  activity  ren- 
der the  soil  non-productive. 

The  Germans  have  a  proverb  which  says,  "  Kalk  macht 
die  Vater  reich,  aber  die  Sohne  arm."  (Lime  makes  the 
fathers  rich,  but  the  sons  poor.)  This  means  in  a  general 
way  that  lime  liberates  plant  food  and  tends  to  exhaust 
soil  fertility.  That  is,  lime  is  an  active  substance,  as 
are  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  The  amount  of  potential 
plant  food  in  the  soil  is  not  so  important  as  the  process 
at  work  there  in  forming  and  accumulating  available 
plant  food. 

79.  Available  Plant  Food.  —  Available  plant  foods  are 
such  substances  as  can  be  utilized  immediately  through 
natural  processes.  The  foregoing  soil  analyses  tell  us  the 
total  quantity  of  plant  food  in  the  soil.  This  knowledge 
has  a  bearing  upon  the  permanency  of  agriculture,  but  it 
has  little  meaning  so  far  as  this  year's  or  next  year's  crop 
is  concerned.  The  practical  question  concerns  the  avail- 
able supply.  How  much  of  what  is  in  the  soil  is  the  plant 
able  to  get?  This  problem  is  taken  up  in  the  next 
chapter. 


SUGGESTIONS  121 


Practical  Questions 

1.  What  is  the  relation  of  the  soil  to  plants?  2.  How  does  pul- 
verizing the  soil  aid  the  growth  of  plants?  3.  Name  the  elements 
needed  by  plants.  i.  What  are  the  so-called  three  great  agri- 
cultural elements?  5.  Give  two  characteristics  of  nitrogen;  of 
phosphorus ;  of  potassium.      6.    How  do  plants  obtain  their  nitrogen  ? 

7.  What  is  the  function  of  nitrogen?  Of  phosphorus?  Of  potassium? 

8.  Distinguish  between  plant  food  and  available  plant  food. 

Home  Exercises 

1.  Dig  up  carefully  several  different  farm  plants;  then  measure 
and  draw  their  roots.  Are  there  any  farm  plants  which  send  their 
roots  into  the  subsoil?  In  case  of  corn,  how  near  to  the  surface  do 
the  roots  extend  ?  Can  you  see  whether  roots  move  to  or  from  the 
more  moist  parts  of  the  soil  ? 

2.  Is  it  possible  to  overfeed  a  plant?  Try  it  in  the  garden  by  add- 
ing a  large  quantity  of  fertilizer  or  compost  to  a  plant.  Take  notes 
from  week  to  week  on  the  behavior  of  the  plant. 

3.  Ask  the  fertilizer  man  for  a  small  quantity  of  nitrate  of  soda, 
acid  phosphate,  and  muriate  of  potash.  He  can  obtain  these  plant 
foods  from  dealers  at  a  trifling  cost.  Add  a  little  of  each  of  these 
substances  to  different  plants  on  your  plot,  and  note  and  describe  the 
results.  Write  to  the  county  agent  for  details  in  working  out 
this  exercise. 

Suggestions 

1.  It  would  make  the  subject  very  real  to  have  in  the  schoolroom 
a  small  sample  of  pure  phosphorus  and  potassium ;  a  half  ounce 
of  each  would  answer.  Supplies  of  this  nature  are  cheap,  and  can  be 
bought  at  any  of  the  supply  houses  listed  in  the  appendix.  The 
burning  of  a  bit  of  potassium  on  water  is  an  especially  striking 
experiment.     Phosphorus  must  be  handled  with  great  care. 

2.  To  show  that  the  air  contains  about  four  fifths  nitrogen,  burn 
up  the  oxygen  contained  in  the  air  in  an  ordinary  wide-mouthed 
bottle.  Proceed  as  follows :  Take  a  splint  of  wood  about  six  inches 
long.  Light  this  at  one  end  and  insert  the  lighted  end  into  an  inverted 
bottle  which  is  then  immersed  in  water.  Measure  the  quantity  of 
water  that  arose  in  the  bottle  to  take  the  place  of  the  oxygen  consumed. 
What  is  left  in  the  bottle  is  mostly  nitrogen.     What  per  cent  is  it? 


122  PLANT  FOOD 

3.  Pupils  usually  know  much  more  about  the  parts  of  plants  above 
the  ground  than  they  do  about  roots,  —  the  main  feeding  orgatis  of 
plants.  The  reason  for  this  lies  in  the  fact  that  roots  are  hidden  from 
view.  The  teacher  should  demonstrate  before  the  class  the  complete 
root  systems  of  common  farm  plants. 

I^EFERENCES 

Fertilizers  and  Crops.     Van  Slyke. 

Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agriculture.     Hopkins. 

Fertilizers.     Voorhees. 

Chemistry  nf  Plant  and  A  nimal  Life.     Snyder. 

Plant  Culture.     Goff. 

Farmers'  Bulletins.     Washington,  D.C. 

186.   Elementary  Exercises  in  Agriculture. 

237.   Lime  and  Clover. 

245.   Renovation  of  Worn-out  Soils. 

257.   Soil  Fertility. 

327.   Conservation  of  Natural  Resources. 


CHAPTER   IX 
FEETILIZEES 


It  cannot  he  denied  that  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  is  a 
source  of  profit  for  the  farmer,  when  they  are  used  in  the  right  way. 

—  Roberts. 

80.  Why  Do  We  Use  Fertilizers? — However  well  a  soil  may 
be  irrigated  or  drained,  and  however  intelligently  it  may 
be  otherwise  cared  for,  8ome  additions  must  be  made  to  it 


^M      , 

-  \"^'--  \ 

..JPt' 

k 

t 

j^ 

Spreading  Manure. 
The  manure  spreader  separates  hard  masses  and  distributes  them  evenly. 

from  time  to  time  in  the  form  of  fertilizers  in  order  to  keep 
up  its  producing  power.  Soils  tend  to  run  down.  They 
lose  fertility,  and  become  poorer  and  poorer.  Many  east- 
ern farms  now  selling  for  twenty  or  forty  dollars  an  acre 
would  be  worth  three  or  four  times  as  much  if  the  soil  had 
been  cared  for  properly.     These  farms  have  been  treated  for 

123 


124  FERTILIZERS 

a  long  time  as  though  crop  after  crop  could  be  removed 
without  injury.  Often,  in  such  neighborhoods,  one  farmer 
produces  twice  as  much  to  the  acre  as  another  close  by. 
This  difference  was  not  noticeable  a  century  ago.  One 
soil  has  been  abused  ;  the  other  has  been  cared  for.  It  is 
just  as  reasonable  in  the  long  run  to  work  a  horse  day  after 
day  feeding  it  no  grain,  but  only  hay  or  straw,  as  to  work 
the  soil  season  after  season  without  supplying  it  with  plant 
food. 

81.  Kinds  of  Fertilizers.  —  A  fertilizer  is  any  substance 
added  to  the  soil  to  maintain  or  to  increase  its  power  to 
produce  crops.  Fertilizers  are  either  direct  or  indirect. 
A  direct  fertilizer  is  one  that  supplies  available  plant 
food  directly  to  the  soil.  Nitrate  of  soda  is  a  common 
example. 

An  indirect  fertilizer,  such  as  lime,  is  one  that  benefits 
the  growth  of  plants  through  its  effects  on  the  soil  by  im- 
proving texture,  preventing  sourness,  promoting  the  growth 
of  helpful  bacteria,  or  by  converting  unavailable  plant  food 
into  available  food,  but  not  by  furnishing  substances  to 
plants  directly. 

A  complete  fertilizer  is  one  that  supplies  nitrogen,  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  potash,  all  three.  One  that  furnishes  but 
one  or  two  of  these  plant  foods  is  termed  an  incomplete 
fertilizer. 

Commercial  fertilizers.  The  question  of  fertilizers  has 
become  so  important  that  large  industries  have  been  de- 
veloped in  the  United  States  to  manufacture  certain  kinds 
of  them.  Nearly  six  hundred  manufacturers  are  selling 
more  than  1(150,000,000  worth  of  fertilizers  to  American 
farmers  yearly.  Such  manufactured  products  are  called 
commercial,  or  artificial,  fertilizers  to  distinguish  them 
from  those  like  manures,  which  are  produced  by  nature. 
The  manufacturers  gather  the  raw  materials  from  widely 


1 


BARNYARD  MANURE 


125 


different  sources,  as  was  noticed  in  the  last  chapter.  They 
then  treat  these  materials  in  many  different  ways  and 
compound  the  products  into  various  combinations  to  meet 
the  varying  needs  of  farmers. 

82.  Fertilizer  Formulas.  —  The  composition  of  commercial 
fertilizers  is  expressed  by  formulas.  If  we  say  the  formula 
for  a  certain  brand  of  fertilizer  is  2-8-10,  we  mean  that 


Proper  Care  of  Manure. 
Note  the  location  of  the  pile  under  a  shed. 


the  minimum  guarantee  for  the  fertilizer  is  2  per  cent 
nitrogen,  8  per  cent  phosphoric  acid,  and  10  per  cent  potash. 
This  order,  you  will  notice,  is  the  alphabetical  one.  In 
the  general  trade,  nitrogen  is  usually  expressed  as  am- 
monia, fourteen  seventeenths  of  which  is  nitrogen. 

83.  Barnyard  maniire  consists  of  the  solid  and  liquid 
excreta  of  the  farm  animals,  together  with  the  absorbents 
employed.  Its  most  valuable  fertilizing  influences  are  in- 
direct.    The  large  amount  of  vegetable  matter  in  it  be- 


126 


FERTILIZERS 


comes  humus,  and  makes  the  soil  looser  in  texture,  more 
able  to  hold  moisture,  and  better  able  to  turn  its  plant 
food  into  available  forms. 

Manure  is  also  highly  useful  as  a  direct  fertilizer.  Its 
composition  varies  with  the  animals,  their  bedding,  and 
with  the  kind  of  food  they  have  had.  A  ton  of  average 
barnyard  manure  supplies  from  10  to  15  pounds  of  nitro- 
gen, from  4  to  9  pounds 
of  phosphoric  acid,  and 
from  9  to  18  pounds  ol 
potash.  Thus,  though 
low  in  its  proportion  of 
phosphorus,  it  contains 
all  the  substances  that 
soils  are  most  likely  to 
lack.  It  is  a  "  complete 
fertilizer." 

Fresh  manure,  how- 
ever, decomposes  rap- 
idly if  exposed  to  the 
air,  and  so  loses  much 
of  its  value.  The  care 
and  use  of  it,  therefore, 
are  of  vital  concern. 
The  nitrogen  and  the 
potash  are  the  elements 
most  likely  to  be  lost.  The  best  way  to  prevent  this  loss 
is  to  spread  the  manure  on  the  land  as  soon  as  possible. 
The  three  direct  fertilizing  elements  are  found  mainly  in  the 
liquid  manure.  Care  should  be  taken  to  provide  bedding 
enough  to  absorb  and  hold  this,  and  in  this  way  to  apply 
it  directly  to  the  soil.  The  farmer  should  see  that  it  is 
not  allowed  to  drain  off  into  a  passing  stream. 

84.  Green  Manure.  —  Green  clover,  cowpeas,  and  rye  are 


A  Lime  Kiln. 


LIME  127 

frequently  plowed  under  for  humus.  However,  the  prac- 
tice is  growing  of  feeding  a  part  of  these  crops  to  the 
stock  and  then  using  the  manure  on  the  land.  In  some 
localities,  a  profit  in  fattening  beef  cattle  can  thus  be 
made  as  a  by-product.  Three  fourths  of  the  nitrogen  and 
phosphorus  and  one  third  of  the  organic  matter  of  feeds 
on  the  average  live-stock  farm  is  recovered  in  the  manure. 

85.  Lime,  we  have  already  said,  is  valuable  mainly  as  an 
indirect  fertilizer.     As  such,  it  works  in  five  ways : 

a.  It  liberates  plant  food  that  is  held  in  insoluble  com- 
pounds in  the  soil,  by  combining  with  them  into  new  com- 
pounds which  are  soluble  in  the  soil  water. 

b.  It  hastens  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  matter  into 
humus  and  makes  available  the  fertility  it  contains. 

c.  It  aids  the  action  of  manure.  The  full  benefit  of 
manure  or  other  fertilizers  will  not  be  realized  in  soils 
deficient  in  lime.  ' 

d.  It  mellows  clay  soils,  making  them  more  granular, 
friable,  and  loose. 

e.  It  "  sweetens  "  the  soil.  This  is  the  most  important 
use  of  lime.  Decomposing  vegetable  matter  leaves  cer- 
tain acids  in  the  soil.  These  aid  in  making  the  soil  sout", 
so  that  needful  bacteria  cannot  flourish.  Lime  corrects 
this  sourness,  by  combining  with  the  acids  into  harmless 
or  helpful  compounds. 

86.  When  Should  Lime  Be  Used  ?  —  Litmus  paper  (to  be 
had  at  drug  stores)  shows  whether  the  soil  is  sweet  or 
sour.  Its  use  is  a  simple  matter.  Place  a  red  and  a  blue 
strip  in  a  hole  several  inches  below  the  surface.  If  the 
blue  paper  reddens  after  remaining  in  contact  with  the 
moist  soil  for  an  hour  or  less,  lime  is  needed;  if  the  red 
paper  turns  blue,  no  lime  is  required.  The  presence  of 
plaintain  and  sorrel  is  commonly  taken  to  indicate  a  sour 
soil  or  a  soil  in  need  of  lime. 


128 


FERTILIZERS 


The  failure  of  clover  on  soils  where  it  once  grew  is  a 
good  indication  of  the  need  of  lime,  provided  the  failure 
is  not  due  to  plant  diseases  or  to  a  bad  season.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  good  stand  of  clover  indicates  positively  that 
the  soil  is  sufficiently  sweet. 

87.  Forms  and  Application  of  Lime.  —  Lime  is  obtained 
from  limestone  rock.     This  rock  is  sometimes  ground  into 


Preparing  Stone  Lime. 

Pulverized  natural  limestone  is  taking  the  place  of  other  forms  of  lime  as  a 

fertilizer. 

fine  particles,  and  then  applied  to  the  land.  The  fine 
division  of  the  rock  is  needed  to  spread  it  evenly  and  to 
increase  the  relative  surfaces  of  the  particles  in  order  to 
hasten  its  action.  But  even  in  this  ground  form,  lime- 
stone rock  acts  very  slowly,  because  it  must  first  be  dis- 
solved in  the  soil.  Often,  therefore,  limestone  is  heated 
in  a  kiln,  to  drive  off  its  carbon  dioxide,  and  so  changed 
into  quicklime.    This  is  then  slacked  by  air  or  water.    When 


FORMS  AND   APPLICATION   OF  LIME 


129 


water-slacked,  quicklime  is  caustic  and  acts  swiftly.  In 
the  air-slacked  form,  the  lime  has  been  changed  back 
toward  its  original  state,  except  that  it  is  no  longer  in 
stony  masses  but  in  very  finely  divided  particles.  In  either 
form,  however,  especially  in  the  first,  quicklime  is  apt  to 
decompose  some  of  the  humus  in  the  soil.     For  this  reason, 


A  Pile  of  Slacked  Lime. 

many  farmers  are  coming  to  prefer  the  slower  but  more 
beneficial  action  of  the  limestone  rock. 

Pennsylvania  Experiments  with  Lime  Yields  per  Acre 
DURING  Twenty  Years. 


COEN 

Oats 

Wheat 

Hat 

Tkeatmknt 

Grain 
Bushels 

straw 
Tons 

Grain 
Bushels 

straw 
Tons 

Grain 

Bushels 

straw 
Tons 

Tons 

None 

Burned  Lime    .     . 
Ground  Limestone 

819 
699 
798 

18.8 
16.5 
18.6 

678 
617 
732 

14.3 
17.8 

20.4 

279 
318 
331 

13.2 
14.6 
16.6 

24.9 
23.6 
29.2 

130  FERTILIZERS 

This  experiment  shows  in  the  most  convincing  manner  the 
tendency  of  burned  lime  to  destroy  fertility.  In  every  case 
it  is  noticed  that  the  limestone  rock  produced  higher  yields. 
This  experiment  incidentally  shows  that  it  often  takes  a 
long  time  to  bring  even  the  most  careful  work  to  any  con- 
clusion that  will  stand  the  severest  tests.  Farmers  should 
therefore  be  cautioned  against  arriving  at  conclusions  from 
their  home  experiments  carried  on  for  a  brief  period  only. 

Too  much  lime  is  harmful.  The  best  practice  is  to 
make  small  but  frequent  applications  ;  it  is  not  well  to  try 
to  add  enough  lime  at  one  time  to  last  a  generation. 

88.  What  Fertilizers  to  Apply. — A  few  years  ago 
nearly  all  farmers  believed  that  the  sole  purpose  of  fer- 
tilizers was  to  supply  a  plant  food  exhausted  from  the 
soil.  They  reasoned  as  follows:  "Fifty  bushels  of 
corn  remove  from  the  soil  about  74  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
12  pounds  of  phosphorus  and  35  pounds  of  potassium. 
Growing  corn  on  the  same  field  for  a  few  years,  then, 
must  exhaust  the  supply  of  these  food  elements ;  and  so 
fertilizers  must  be  supplied  to  make  good  the  loss." 
While  men  argued  in  this  way,  they  thought  that  a 
chemical  analysis  of  the  soil  w^as  all  that  was  needed  to 
show  what  fertilizers  should  be  supplied. 

But  now  we  have  learned  (Chapter  VIII)  that  in  an 
average  soil  there  is  enough  of  all  these  plant  foods  to 
last  for  two  generations  of  yearly  cropping.  We  have 
also  learned,  liowever,  that  only  a  small  part  of  this  food 
is  available.  That  is,  only  a  small  part  of  it  at  any  one 
time  is  soluble.,  or  in  a  form  that  can  be  used  by  plants. 
The  addition  of  a  little  fertilizer,  however,  may  cause  a 
marked  increase  in  a  crop  yield.  This  is  because  the  fer- 
tilizer may  not  only  add  plant  food  directly  to  the  soil, 
but  may  also  release  for  use  some  of  the  store  before 
imprisoned  in  the  soil  in  unusable  forms. 


WHAT  FERTILIZEBS   TO  APPLY  131 

Soil  analysis^  therefore,  is  not  enough  to  tell  us  what 
fertilizer  to  use.  It  is  helpful,  particularly  if  it  shows  the 
absence  of  some  important  element ;  but  for  the  average 
farm  it  is  less  instructive  than  experiments  with  differ- 
ent fertilizers.  Experiment  stations  make  these  experi- 
ments on  the  different  types  of  soil  in  their  respective 
districts.  They  keep  careful  records  of  the  kinds  and 
quantities  of  fertilizers  used  on  different  fields,  and  on 
sections  of  the  same  field,  and  they  measure  carefully  the 
crop  yield  through  a  period  of  years  before  and  after  this 
fertilization.  Then  they  publish  the  results,  and  suggest 
allowances  to  be  made  for  variations  in  rainfall  or  in  other 
climatic  conditions. 

It  is  usually  safe  for  the  farmer  to  adopt  the  advice  of 
a  station,  based  upon  such  experiments ;  but  it  is  well  for 
him  at  least  to  confirm  the  experiment  himself  by  keeping 
records  and  observing  carefully  whether  the  results  se- 
cured by  the  station  are  secured  also  upon  his  land. 
And  if  there  are  no  records  of  satisfactory  government 
experiments  in  his  neighborhood,  or  upon  his  kind  of  soil, 
it  need  not  cost  the  farmer  much  money  or  time  to  experi- 
ment for  himself.  Two  or  three  kinds  of  fertilizer  added 
to  as  many  strips  through  a  field  will  give  a  useful  basis, 
at  the  close  even  of  one  season,  for  comparing  the  results 
of  the  different  fertilizers  with  one  another  and  with  the 
absence  of  any  fertilizer  on  the  rest  of  the  field.  The 
fertilizer  that  brings  the  best  returns  upon  a  particular 
soil  and  for  a  particular  crop  is  the  one  to  use  for  that 
soil  and  that  crop.  It  is  well  worth  while  to  find  out 
what  this  one  is. 

Practical  Questions 

1.  Define  the  four  different  kinds  of  fertilizers.  2.  Discuss 
barnyard  manure  as  a  direct  and  indirect  fertilizer.       3.    What  crops 


182  FERTILIZERS 

are  used  to  furnish  green  manure?  4.  State  five  uses  of  lime. 
5.  How  can  a  farmer  tell  the  need  of  lime  V  6.  What  different 
forms  of  lime  have  you  seen  ?  7.  If  a  man  desires  to  plant  an  acre 
of  potatoes,  what  fertilizer  should  he  use  ? 

HOMK    EXERCISF.S 

1.  Hunt  up  all  the  fertilizer  sacks  you  can  find  and  copy  the  for- 
mulas on  them.  Bring  these  formulas  to  school  and  compare  them 
with  those  brought  to  school  by  other  students. 

2.  Do  you  know  of  any  farmers  who  mix  their  own  fertilizers? 
Does  it  pay  ? 

3.  Visit  a  limekiln  and  find  out  all  you  can  about  it ;  then  write 
up  a  report  on  burning  lime. 

4.  Get  the  selling  price  of  manure  and  of  the  commercial  fertilizers. 
Which  does  the  greatest  amount  of  good,  considering  cost? 

5.  Keep  a  careful  record  of  the  cost  and  action  of  fertilizers  used  on 
your  father's  farm. 

Suggestions 

1.  A  way  of  making  the  study  of  fertilizers  very  practical  is  to  ask 
the  pupils  to  report  their  home  experience  on  the  kind  of  fertilizer 
used  and  the  crop  yields.  It  is  not  so  much,  however,  a  question  of 
getting  information  that  counts,  as  it  is  the  carrying  out  of  a  few 
simple  ideas  for  improving  farm  practice.  When  possible,  a  little  land 
should  be  used  by  the  pupils  themselves  for  this  work. 

2.  Many  interesting  and  instructive  experiments  can  be  made  with 
a  bit  of  limestone.  Pour  hot  vinegar  on  it :  carbon  dioxide,  a  com- 
mon gas,  escapes.  Throw  a  piece  in  the  stove,  and  even  when  cooled, 
it  may  burn  the  fingers,  because  it  has  been  changed  to  a  weak  alkali. 
Place  a  bit  of  the  burned  stone  in  a  glass  of  water  and  blow  your 
breath  into  the  water  through  a  straw ;  the  water  turns  milky,  show- 
ing that  you  exhale  carbon  dioxide. 

Referrnces 

Soils  and  Fertilizers.     Snyder. 
Fertilizers.     Voorhees. 
Farming  with  Green  Manures.     Harlans. 
Talks  on  Manures.     Harris. 


REFERENCES  133 

Farmers'  Bulletins.     Washington,  D.  C. 

44.  Commercial  Fertilizers. 

77.  The  Liming  of  Soils. 

192.  Barnyard  Manure. 

237.  Lime  and  Clover. 

259.  Use  of  Commercial  Fertilizers. 

273.  Leguminous  Crops  for  Green  Manuring. 


CHAPTER   X 

SOIL  MANAGEMENT 


Ye  rigid  Ploughmen!  bear  in  mind 

Your  labor  is  for  future  Jiours. 
Advance!  spare  not!  nor  look  behind! 

Plough  deep  and  straight  with  all  your  powers. 

—  IIOBWK. 


89.  What  is  Soil  Management  ?  —  We  have  said  that  the  soil 
is  our  most  valuable  natural  resource.  All  the  wheels  of 
industry  would  stop,  and  even  our  lives  would  soon  end, 
if  the  soil  did  not  produce  food  for  man  and  beast  and 
supply  materials  for  man's  industries.  But,  like  other 
useful  things,  the  soil  must  be  used  intelligently.  Careful 
planning  is  necessary  to  get  the  best  results  from  it. 
Many  farmers  fail  to  secure  large  crops,  not  because  the 
soil  is  at  fault,  but  because  the  farmers  are.  Too  often 
they  abuse  and  injure  the  soil,  just  as  some  ignorant  men 
abuse  and  ruin  a  horse. 

Farmers  should  look  upon  the  soil  with  great  respect 
and  not  think  of  it  as  mere  dirt.  Scientists  who  have 
been  studying  the  soil  for  the  greater  part  of  their  lifetime 
say  that  they  have  found  out  only  a  little  about  it.  We 
ought  not  to  have  a  low  opinion  of  anything  that  is  the 
abode  of  so  much  that  is  still  unknown. 

Many  useful  facts,  however,  have  been  discovered  with 
regard  to  managing  the  soil;  and  if  all  farmers  would 
apply  this  knowledge,  they  would  greatly  profit  both  them- 
selves and  the  rest  of  the  world.     One  point  in  particular 

134 


TILLAGE  135 

should  be  kept  in  mind  whenever  we  have  anything  to  do 
with  the  soil:  we  should  each  see  to  it  that  the  soil  is  as  fertile 
and  productive  when  we  pass  it  on  to  our  children  as  it  was  when 
we  received  it  from  our  parents.  More  people  will  have  to  be 
fed  from  the  soil  in  the  future  than  in' the  past;  and  it  is 
not  fair  to  the  coming  generations  for  us  to  handicap  them 


Effect  of  Tillage. 

The  alfalfa  at  the  left  was  grown  in  soil  more  carefully  prepared  than  that 

at  the  right. 

by  lowering  the  producing  power  of  the  soil.  Rather,  it  is 
our  duty  to  increase  that  power. 

Proper  soil  management,  then,  is  the  handling  of  the  soil 
in  such  a  manner  that  it  will  produce  year  after  year  the 
largest  possible  yields  of  valuable  crops,  at  the  lowest 
possible  cost,  without  lowering  its  productive  power  for 
the  future. 

90.  Tillage.  —  No  one  knows  who  first  conceived  the  idea 
that  before  a  crop  is  planted  the  soil  should  be  prepared 


136  SOIL  MANAGEMENT 

to  receive  it.  We  call  this  preparation  tillage.  Its  origin 
takes  us  back  from  the  modern  plow  and  harrow,  past  rude 
implements  still  in  use  by  barbarous  peoples,  to  the  days  of 
the  crooked  stick  of  the  savage.  From  the  very  earliest 
times,  men  stirred  the  soil  before  planting  the  seed,  not 
knowing  exactly  why,  but  believing  that  they  would 
obtain  larger  crops  by  doing  so.  Civilized  man  has  found 
out  several  reasons  why  tillage  is  beneficial.  We  will  now 
note  some  of  them. 

a.  Tillage,  we  have  already  said,  breaks  compacted  soil 
apart  and  pulverizes  it.  Soil  lying  untouched  for  a  year 
or  two  becomes  compact  chiefly  by  the  force  of  falling 
rain,  by  the  action  of  the  water  and  ice  within  the  soil, 
and  by  the  pressure  of  the  upper  soil  layers.  This  shuts 
out  air  from  the  soil.  But  we  have  learned  that  plant 
roots  need  air.  Tillage  ventilates  the  soil,  driving  out  foul 
gases  that  it  may  contain,  and  making  open  spaces,  or 
pores,  which  take  up  fresh  air. 

b.  Tillage  conserves  moisture.  In  the  last  chapter  it  was 
stated  that  soil  moisture  is  perhaps  the  most  important 
point  for  farmers  to  watch  in  connection  with  their  soils. 
This  was  why  so  much  space  was  devoted  to  the  study  of 
drainage  and  irrigation.  Capillary  water  escapes  from  the 
soil  either  by  direct  evaporation  or  by  being  absorbed 
by  plant  roots.  It  is  the  loss  by  evaporation  that  needs  to 
be  regulated  by  tillage. 

In  this  matter  the  first  thing  to  see  to  is  to  be  sure  that 
the  deeper  layers  of  the  soil  store  up  all  the  water  they 
can  hold.  To  help  this  process,  where  needful,  the  farmer 
loosens  up  the  under  crust,  sometimes  by  dynamite,  but 
more  commonly  by  deep  fall  plowing.  The  idea  in  mind 
is  to  get  many  open  spaces  for  water  storage  deep  in  the 
soil. 

Surface  or  shallow  tillage  is  next  resorted  to  in  order  to 


TILLAGE 


137 


conserve  this  deep  soil  water  by  preventing  it  from  moving 
upwards  too  rapidly  and  escaping  by  evaporation  from  the 
surface.  In  a  previous  chapter  (page  104)  we  have  de- 
scribed the  way  in  which  this  is  done  by  shallow  tillage. 

There  is  an  old  but  truthful  saying  that  it  is  possible  to 
water  the  garden  with  a  rake.  The  dust  mulch  formed  by 
the  rake  makes  the  water  below  it  last  longer,  so  that  it 
does  as  much  good  as  more  rain  from  above. 

c.  Tillage  cleans  the  soil.  A  farmer  must  always  keep 
on  the  lookout  for  injurious  agents  like  insects  and  weeds. 


A  School  Garden. 
Students  making  practical  tests  of  soils. 


He  must  try  not  to  allow  them  to  become  established  in 
his  land.  Many  harmful  insects  pass  the  winter  in  the 
ground  on  account  of  the  protection  it  affords.  During 
the  late  fall,  when  these  pests  are  at  rest  in  fancied  secur- 
ity, the  farmer  may  plow  them  up  and  leave  them  exposed 
to  the  winter  weather  and  spring  birds. 

Weeds  likewise  are  destroyed  wholesale  by  tillage. 
When  the  weed  roots  have  become  established  in  the  soil, 
the  farmer  inverts  it  by  plowing,  thus  smothering  the  stems 
of  the  weeds  and  exposing  their  tender  roots  to  the  dry, 
withering  air.    And  as  this  deep  tillage  kills  mature  weeds, 


138  SOIL   MANAGEMENT 

SO  frequent  shallow  tillage  keeps  new  weeds  from  starting 
or  from  becoming  firmly  established. 

d.  Tillage  serves  many  other  useful  purposes.  It  en- 
ables the  farmer  to  mix  fertilizers  of  different  kinds  uni- 
formly in  the  soil.  It  makes  it  easier  for  him  to  plant  his 
seed  and  cover  it.  (Probably  this  was  the  only  benefit 
from  tillage  that  early  farmers  knew.)     It  brings  different 


la 

ibton^ 

^ 

■J^ 

fl 

m 

\ 

H 

p^^p^ 

^% 

s 

E 

.  -  -  -.. 

■■  ■  _    'v^^ 

-.-^ 

Spreading  Lime. 

This  spreader  distributes  the  lime  more  evenly  than  if  it  is  shoveled  from  a 

wagon. 

particles  of  soil  at  different  times  to  the  surface  where 
they  can  be  cleansed  and  made  more  usable  for  the  plant. 
To  sum  up  briefly :  tillage  helps  the  farmer  get  seed  and 
fertilizers  into  the  ground.  It  kills  countless  enemies  of 
the  growing  plant  before  and  after  it  starts,  and  brings 
new  food  within  its  reach.  It  brings  to  the  plant's  root- 
lets indispensable  air  which  otherwise  would  be  shut  out, 
and  it  keeps  in  for  those  rootlets  much  indispensable 
water  which  would  otherwise  escape. 


STORY  OF  THE  IMPLEMENTS   OF  TILLAGE        139 

91.  Story  of  the  Implements  of  Tillage.  —  Many  of  the  im- 
provements in  the  tillage  implements  of  to-day  have  been 
made  in  quite  recent  years.  When  the  famous  Minute 
Men  of  the  Revolution  left  their  plows  standing  in  the 
furrows  to  rally  for  the  defense  of  their  country,  they  left 
a  clumsy  wooden  "bull  plow,"  which  was  about  as  crude 
and  primitive  as  the  plows  used  by  the  Egyptians  when 
the  pyramids  were  building,  fifty  centuries  before.  So, 
too,  of  other  farm  tools  of  that  time.  There  had  been 
little  improvement  in  them  for  five  thousand  years.  Even 
a  generation  later,  when  Thomas  Jefferson  became  Presi- 
dent, the  farmer  in  America  and  elsewhere  still  plowed 
with  this  bull  plow,  which  at  best  could  only  scratch  the 
ground,  sowed  his  grain  broadcast  (by  hand),  cut  it  with 
the  prehistoric  sickle,  and  threshed  it  on  the  barn  floor 
with  the  flail  of  prehistoric  times  —  if  he  did  not  tread  it 
out  with  cattle,  as  the  ancient  Egyptians  did. 

The  first  threshing  machine  was  invented  in  1785,  but 
for  many  years  it  did  not  come  into  use.  The  only  farm 
"machinery"  to  be  drawn  by  horses  in  1800  was  the  bull 
plow,  an  equally  clumsy,  wedge-shaped,  wooden  harrow, 
and  a  cart  The  sickle,  scythe,  flail,  fork,  ax,  spade,  hoe, 
and  rake  complete  the  list  of  farm  implements  of  that 
day;  and,  except  perhaps  the  ax  and  scythe,  all  these  were 
awkward  in  shape  and  heavy.  The  first  cradle  scythe  — 
a  hand  tool,  but  a  vast  improvement  on  the  old  sickle  for 
harvesting  grain  —  was  patented  in  1803.^ 

In  1800,  the  era  of  rapid  change  in  farm  machinery  was 
just  at  hand.  A  large  part  of  the  new  machines  of  this 
age  have  to  do  with  the  crop  at  harvest  or  after  it.  Some 
of  this  machinery  will  be  treated  in  later  chapters.  Thi^ 
chapter  will  now  treat  of  the  implements  of  to-day  that 


1  Tlie  brief  historical  statement  of  the  last  two  paragraphs  is  taken  mainly, 
with  permission,  from  West's  American  History  and  Government,  pp.  390,  39.1. 


140  SOIL  MANAGEMENT 

concern  the  preparation  of  the  soil  and  its  care  while  the 
crop  is  growing. 

92.  The  plow  has  often  been  called  the  most  important 
instrument  ever  invented.  Its  pictures  decorate  the 
coat  of  arms  of  many  of  our  states.  Two  great  classes  of 
plows  are  now  in  use: 

a.  The  disk  plow  has  a  rolling  motion,  and  is  used 
mainly  in  dry  soil. 

b.  The  moldhoard  plow  slides  along  through  the  ground. 
By  varying  the  shape  and  slope  of  the  moldboard,  we  get 
varieties  of  this  kind  of  plow,  —  the  stubble  plow,  the 


The  Common  Plow. 
Here  the  plowman  walks  behind. 

breaking  plow,  the  black-land  plow,  and  so  on.  These 
varieties  are  used  for  the  purposes  that  their  names 
indicate. 

93.  Stages  of  the  Plow.  —  In  very  early  times,  and  in  some 
backward  countries  to  this  day,  the  plow  was  literally  a 
crude  tree  crotch,  which  was  drawn  by  slaves  or  cattle.  It 
took  centuries  to  make  the  improvements  that  are  now  so 
well  known.  The  iron  share,  in  some  form,  must  have 
been  in  existence  1100  years  B.C.,  because  the  Bible 
relates  that  the  Israelites  went  down  to  the  Philistines 
"to  sharpen,  every  man,  his  share  and  coulter."  About 
1800  A.D.  the  cast-iron  plow  appeared;  but  farmers  long 


STAGES  OF  THE  PLOW 


141 


declared  that  its  use  poisoned  the  ground,  and  it  did  not 
fully  replace  the  bull  plow  until  about  1825.  Then  the 
better  plowing  it  made  possible  created  a  new  era  in  farm- 
ing. Thomas  Jefferson  had  had  much  to  do  with  this 
improvement,  by  liis  experiments  upon  various  forms  of 
moldboards,  and  Daniel  Webster  also  had  a  hand  in  the 
movement. 


The  Spaulding  Plow. 
Here  the  plowman  rides  and  can  adjust  the  plow  from  his  seat. 

On  even  ordinary  farms  in  the  prairie  states  of  the 
West  it  is  rare  indeed  now  to  see  a  farmer  walking  behind 
a  plow.  The  usual  plow  there  is  the  "  gang  plow."  This 
consists  commonly  of  three  distinct  moldboard  plows 
fastened  together,  one  a  little  to  the  rear  and  to  the 
left  of  the  one  before  it,  so  as  to  turn  three  furrows  at 
once.  This  gang  plow  is  drawn  by  five  horses,  and  the 
driver  rides.  One  man  and  five  horses,  in  this  way,  do 
much  more  work  than  three  men  and  six  horses  with 
single  plows. 


142  SOIL  MANAGEMENT 

The  growth  of  the  "age  of  steam"  made  possible  still 
further  development  in  the  plow.  To-day,  on  large  farms 
free  from  stumps  and  stones,  the  110  horse-power  trac- 
tion plow  moves  as  fast  as  a  man  can  walk,  covering  a 
strip  30  feet  wide  at  one  time.  This  machine  plows, 
harrows,  and  seeds  at  the  same  time,  and  treats  80  or  100 
acres  a  day. 

94.  In  plowing,  we  must  consider  the  depths  the  time,  and 
the  manner  of  turning  the  furrow. 


Traction  Plow  and  Disk  Harrow. 
Note  the  width  of  land  plowed  and  harrowed  by.  one  man. 

a.  Depth.  It  pays  to  plow  deep.  Said  a  wise  man  to 
a  farmer  who  complained  that  his  land  was  poor:  "There 
is  much  wealth  in  the  farm  under  the  one  you  have  been 
tilling  :  plow  up  that  wealth." 

It  will  not  do,  however,  to  bring  up  a  large  amount  of 
new  subsoil  at  any  one  plowing,  because  that  undersoil  lacks 
humus  and  cannot  get  much  of  its  plant  food  into  available 
forms  in  the  first  season  it  is  tilled.  About  one  inch 
deeper  than  previous  plowings  is  as  deep  as  the  plow 
should  go  at  one  plowing.  Deep  plowing  should  he  secured 
gradually. 

Deep  plowing  is  especially  necessary  in  dry  regions  and 


TIMES  AND   WAYS  OF  PLOWING 


143 


on  worn-out  lands  (on  lands,  that  is,  where  the  surface  has 
been  worn  out),  and  it  is  always  advisable  for  root 
crops.  On  the  other  hand,  some  small  grains,  like  oats, 
thrive  well  on  shallow  plowing  because  their  roots  feed 
near  the  surface.  In  a  rotation  of  corn  or  potatoes, 
small  grain,  and  clover,  it  is  often  well  to  plow  deep 
for  the  corn  crop,  and  then  plow  shallow  the  next  year 
for  the  oats. 

h.    Time.      Clay  soils  should  not  be  plowed  when  wet^ 
because   they   are   likely  to   "puddle."      This   compacts 


Furrows  Properly  Turned. 

them,  and  makes  it  hard  for  air  and  roots  to  get  into  the 
soil.  Fall  plowing  is  best  in  regions  of  scant  rainfall  and 
clay  soils,  because  more  of  the  winter  moisture  can  then 
sink  into  the  ground,  instead  of  running  off.  On  hill- 
sides, where  the  winter  rains  are  apt  to  wash  the  lands, 
spring  plowing  is  to  be  preferred. 

c.  The  furrow.  There  are  two  objections  to  turning 
the  furrow  slice  of  sod  completely  over,  so  as  to  make  it  lie 
flat  in  the  bottom  of  the  furrow.  First,  the  capillary  con- 
nections between  the  sod  and  subsoil  will  be  broken  more 


144 


SOIL  MANAGEMENT 


than  necessary  ;  and,  second,  the  ground  will  not  pul- 
verize well.  It  is  better  to  have  each  furrow  slice  lap 
slightly  upon  the  preceding  one. 

95.  The  Harrow.  —  The  first  harrow  was  probably  a  tree 
limb  with  projecting  branches.  The  purpose  of  the  har- 
row is  to  crumble  the  soil  and  to  give  it  good  tilth,  or  fine- 
ness. After  plowing, 
the  surface  of  the 
ground  should  not  be 
allowed  to  dry  out  be- 
fore harrowing,  since  it 
is  then  more  difficult  to 
break  up  the  clods. 

There  are  three  com- 
mon types  of  harrows : 

a.  The  spike-toothed 
harrow  is  made  of  spikes 
fastened  in  a  wooden  or 
iron  frame.  This  type 
is  especially  useful  in 
forming  a  dry-dust 
mulch.  It  is  used  to 
follow  the  plow,  and 
sometimes,  again,  with 
crops  like  corn  and  po- 
tatoes, after  planting 
but  before  the  plants 
sprout.  In  this  second  case,  the  teeth  are  slanted  back, 
so  as  to  stir  the  soil  very  lightly. 

b.  Each  tooth  of  the  spring-toothed  harrow  is  a  broad 
spur  extending  from  a  strong  half  coil  of  steel.  When 
these  teeth  strike  an  obstruction  that  they  cannot  tear  up, 
they  "  spring  "  back  and  release  themselves.  This  kind  of 
harrow,  therefore,  is  suited  to  stony  fields  and  to  orchards 


Spring-Tooth  Harrow. 

This  Is  especially  effective  in  leveling 
and  breaking  up  the  surface  soil. 


THE  CULTIVATOR  146 

where  roots  abound.     For  a  like  reason  it  is  useful  in 
many  new  lands. 

c.  The  dish  harrow  cuts  the  clods  and  the  surface  soil. 
It  is  very  effective  in  pulverizing  the  ground  and  in  de- 
stroying weeds.  To  prepare  corn  stubble  land  for  oats, 
the  disk  harrow  is  often  used  in  place  of  the  shallow 
plowing  that  was  discussed  a  little  above. 


Extension  Harrow. 
A  labor-saving  device  for  level  fields. 

96.  The  cultivator  is  used  for  intertillage,  or  tillage  between 
the  rows  of  such  crops  as  grow  in  rows.  It  may  be  used 
after  planting,  before  the  plants  appear,  if  the  rows  are  so 
marked  that  they  can  be  seen ;  but  its  main  use  is  between 
the  rows  of  standing  crops. 

In  small  gardens  a  hand  cultivator  (pushed  by  hand) 
has  great  advantages  over  the  hoe;  and  it  finds  an  impor- 
tant place  also  in  truck  gardening  on  a  large  scale  if  land 
is  so  valuable  that  it  is  desirable  to  plant  in  rows  too  near 
together  for  the  use  of  a  horse. 


146  SOIL  MANAGEMENT 

For  larger  crops,  horse  cultivators  are  necessary.  These, 
if  drawn  by  two  horses,  are  usually  also  riding  cultivators. 
Like  "  sulky  "  plows,  these  "  riding  cultivators  "  make  the 
work  more  rapid,  easy,  and  interesting. 

97.  The  roller  and  the  planker  are  compacting  and  smooth- 
ing tools  which  are  often  used  after  plowing  and  harrow- 
ing. Some  soil  moisture  is  sacrificed  by  their  use;  but 
without  them  many  clods  in  some  soils  can  hardly  be 
broken  up.  Small  seeds,  too,  germinate  more  quickly  and 
strongly  in  soil  that  is  pressed  tightly  about  them. 

98.  Crop  rotation  is  quite  as  important  to  the  welfare  of 
the  soil  as  is  fertilizer  or  tillage.  Crop  rotation  means 
the  growing  of  a  series  of  different  crops  on  the  same  field 
in  a  definite  order  through  a  series  of  years.  A 'field  that 
grows  corn  this  year  may  perhaps  grow  wheat  of  dats  next 
year,  clover  the  year  following,  and  then  begin  with  corn 
again  the  next  season.  This  is  an  example  of  a  three- 
year  rotation. 

In  a  case  like  the  above  the  farmer  probably  wants  to 
raise  some  of  all  three  crops  each  year;  so  he  divides  his 
tilled  land  into  three  nearly  equal  fields.  Each  of  these 
fields  has  one  of  the  three  crops;  and  just  as  the  three 
crops  are  rotated  on  each  field  through  the  years,  so  is 
each  crop  "rotated"  through  the  three  fields.  The  im- 
portant side  of  crop  rotation,  however,  is  the  side  men- 
tioned first,  —  the  change  from  year  to  year  in  a  given  field. 
Let  us  see  why  this  change  is  necessary. 

99.  The  Need  of  Crop  Eotation.  —  A  farmer  and  his  teams 
may  work  hard  to  prepare  tiie  soil  for  seeding ;  the  soil 
may  hold  an  abundance  of  plant  food ;  the  seed  may  be 
good,  and  the  season  favorable ;  and  yet  the  crop  may  be 
poor  because  the  same  kind  of  crop  has  been  grown  on  the 
field  for  too  many  years  in  succession. 

Each  kind  of  plant  takes  its  particular  kind  of  food 


THE  NEED   OF  CROP  ROTATION  147 

from  the  soil.  Potatoes  remove  large  quantities  of  potash; 
timothy  takes  nitrogen ;  small  grains  take  phosphoric  acid. 
If  any  one  of  these  crops  be  grown  year  after  year  on 
the  same  field,  the  soil  there  will  lose  most  of  the  avail- 
able food  for  that  kind  of  plant. 

But  though  the  land  that  has  grown  potatoes  for  three 
or  four  years  gives  only  decreasing  crops  of  that  plant,  it 
may  give  excellent  grain  crops.  An  "  exhausted "  soil 
often  is  exhausted  only  for  a  particular  crop.  Nearly  all 
plants,  however,  require  at  least  a  small  amount  of  each 
kind  of  plant  food ;  so  if  exhaustion  of  any  sort  goes  too 
far,  it  becomes  difficult  to  use  the  land  profitably  at  all 
until  its  fertility  has  been  built  up  again  by  slow  and 
costly  processes. 

In  colonial  times  tobacco  was  raised  on  the  rich  lands 
of  Virginia  and  Maryland  each  season  until  field  after 
field  was  exhausted  and  abandoned.  A  little  later,  in  the 
central  West,  and  later  still,  in  the  more  distant  West,  a 
like  sin  against  the  soil  was  committed  with  wheat. 

Of  course  some  attempts  were  made  on  the  colonial  to- 
bacco lands  and  on  the  western  wheat  fields  to  supply  the 
needed  plant  food  by  fertilizers.  But  it  was  found,  to  the 
surprise  of  the  farmers,  that  this  checked  the  decrease  in 
crop  returns  only  partially.  As  will  be  more  fully  ex- 
plained a  little  further  on,  the  fact  is  that  food  exhaustion 
is  not  the  only  evil  that  follows  from  using  the  soil  con- 
tinually for  the  same  crop. 

It  is  possible,  however,  to  grow  crops  on  the  same  land 
every  year  for  centuries,  and  at  the  same  time  to  improve 
its  condition  steadily  instead  of  exhausting  it.  To  do 
this  requires  fertilizers,  but  quite  as  much  —  even  more 
—  it  requires  that  successive  crops  vary  in  kind.  That 
is,  it  requires  a  wise  crop  rotation.  In  a  rude  way,  even 
some  barbarous  peoples  have  learned  the  need  of  a  "  rota- 


148  SOIL  MANAGEMENT 

tioii"  in  crops,  while  European  farmers  and  the  better 
American  farmers  have  practiced  some  kind  of  crop  rota- 
tion for  a  long  time.  Of  late  years  nearly  all  farmers 
have  adopted  the  practice,  because  at  last  they  have  found 
that  it  jmys.  And  quite  recently  a  great  deal  more  has 
been  learned  about  whi/  it  pays,  and  what  kinds  of  rotation 
pay  best. 

100.  Five  reasons  why  crop  rotation  pays  will  be  noted  here. 

a.  Rotation  varies  the  demand  for  soil-food  from  year 
to  year ;  thus  it  enables  the  natural  forces  in  the  soil 
to  accumulate  a  new  supply  before  it  is  again  especially 
demanded.  This  was  the  lirst  beneficial  result  that  men 
learned,  but  it  is  not  the  most  important. 

b.  Rotation  avoids  the  collection  in  the  soil  of  certain 
poisonous  substances  known  as  root  excretions.  Our 
knowledge  about  this  is  very  recent  and  rather  theo- 
retical. The  roots  of  a  plant,  we  now  know,  throw  off 
waste  matters  as  we  do  in  perspiring.  These  excretions 
cannot  escape  freely  from  the  soil;  and  so,  if  the  same 
crop  is  grown  on  a  field  for  several  years,  the  soil  there 
accumulates  so  much  of  the  excretion  of  this  particular 
plant  as  to  poison  future  crops  of  it.  The  roots  of  an- 
other variety  of  plant,  however,  will  not  be  injuriously 
affected  by  this  poison.  Plants  are  rotated,  then,  to  avoid 
the  effects  of  their  ovm  excretions.  After  three  or  four 
years,  natural  forces  in  the  soil  destroy  the  excretion,  and 
then  the  first  plant  may  be  grown  again. 

c.  Rotation  permits  the  use  of  different  layers  of  soil 
by  alternating  deep  and  shallow  rooted  crops,  like  corn 
and  wheat. 

d.  Rotation  makes  it  easier  to  distribute  farm  labor 
more  evenly  through  the  year.  One  of  the  problems  of 
the  farmer  is  to  keep  his  help  busy  at  profitable  work. 
P'armers  who  grow  wheat  only,  or  cotton  only,  have  little 


BEST  ORDER   OF  ROTATION  149 

to  do  between  seed  time  and  harvest.  They  cannot  afford 
to  keep  regular  help  ;  and  so  when  harvest  comes,  they 
often  have  difficulty  in  securing  all  the  labor  they  need. 
Farming,  too,  will  be  a  better  business,  and  the  farm  will 
be  a  better  place  to  live,  when  the  farm  laborers  have  a 
regular  home  upon  it  instead  of  coming  and  going  as 
tramps. 

e.  Rotation  keeps  down  pests,  like  certain  insects  and 
weeds.  Different  pests  live  upon  different  crops.  By 
changing  the  crops  from  time  to  time  we  can  more  easily 
exterminate  the  pests. 

The  beat  order  of  rotation  depends  upon  the  kind  of 
farming  and  the  products  of  the  district.  Some  districts 
find  a  good  five-year  rotation  in  corn  —  oats  —  wheat  or 
rye  —  clover  and  timothy  —  timothy  —  corn.  This  rota- 
tion is  practiced  by  many  eastern  farmers.  Timothy  is 
drilled  in  with  the  fall  Avheat  or  rye,  and  the  clover  is 
broadcasted  early  the  following  spring.  The  common 
red  clover  usually  dies  out  at  the  end  of  the  second  year, 
but  the  timothy  thickens  up  to  take  its  place,  and  the 
land  is  left  in  grass  for  two  years.  Manure  is  spread  on 
the  sod,  to  be  plowed  under  for  the  coming  corn  crop ; 
and  mineral  fertilizers  are  drilled  in  with  the  wheat. 
Some  farmers  spread  much  of  their  manure  on  the  oat 
stubble.  This  practice  is  not  as  good  as  the  other  one 
mentioned,  since  the  manure  generally  lies  in  the  yard 
until  after  the  oat  harvest  and  so  loses  much  of  its 
value. 

A  good  three-year  rotation  for  a  potato  section  or  a 
dairy  section  is  potatoes  or  corn  —  wheat  or  oats  —  clover. 

In  alfalfa  regions  the  alfalfa  is  usually  allowed  to  stand 
for  four  or  five  years  ;  then  corn  is  planted  for  two 
seasons ;  finally  wheat,  rye,  or  oats  ;  and  then  alfalfa 
again. 


160  SOIL  MANAGEMENT 

Practical  Qukstions 

1.  What  is  meant  by  the  phrase  soil  management?  2.  In  what 
ways  may  a  soil  be  abused?  3.  Define  tillage.  4.  How  did  the 
ancients  till  their  land  ?        5.    How  does  tillage  conserve  moisture  ? 

6.  Discuss  tillage  as  a  means  of  ridding  the  soil  of  insects  and  weeds. 

7.  What  is  the  most  important  purpose  of  tillage?  8.  Describe 
the  plow.  9.  State  some  facts  on  plowing.  10.  Describe  the  work 
of  the  different  types  of  harrows.  11.  In  what  sense  are  crops 
"rotated"?  12.  State  three  benefits  of  crop  rotation.  13.  Give 
a  good  order  of  crops  for  a  five-year  rotation. 

Home  Exercises 

1.  Make  a  drawing  of  your  farm  or  one  you  know,  as  at  the  close 
of  the  last  chapter,  showing  the  exact  size  and  location  of  the  differ- 
ent fields.  Mark  on  each  field  the  name  of  its  crop  for  this  year, 
last  year,  and  for  the  last  five  years.  Does  your  rotation  correspond 
with  any  of  those  given  in  the  text  ? 

2.  Ascertain  the  yield  per  acre  of  all  your  leading  crops.  What 
was  the  cost  of  the  fertilizer,  and  how  many  dollars  worth  of  produce 
were  sold? 

3.  How  is  your  manure  kept  ?  Is  it  placed  under  cover  or  stored 
in  the  yard  ?  How  many  loads  of  manure  do  you  apply  to  the  acre  ? 
Is  the  manure  spread  on  the  sod  or  on  oat  stubble?  If  on  neither 
of  these,  where  is  it  spread  ? 

4.  If  there  are  any  poor  or  run-down  farms  in  your  neighborhood, 
what  is  this  condition  due  to? 

5.  Does  your  father  turn  the  furrow  over  completely  in  plowing  ? 

6.  Write  a  description  of  all  your  home  implements  of  tillage  and 
the  care  that  is  given  them. 

Suggestions 

1.  Gret  a  good  manual  or  bulletin  for  detailed  directions  on  how 
best  to  illustrate  the  topics  discussed  in  this  chapter. 

2.  A  member  of  the  class  may  be  g^ven  the  problem  of  studying 
the  different  methods  of  tillage  as  practiced  in  the  different  countries. 
Histories,  geographies,  encyclopedias,  and  other  books  likely  to  con- 
tain information  on  this  point  should  be  used.  A  few  days  should  be 
aUowed  for  this  work  and  then  an*  oral  report  should  be  presented. 

8.   A  Club  study  on  soil  management  under  the  direction  of  the 


REFERENCES  151 

county  agent  will  be  appreciated  by  the  older  boys.  This  study 
may  be  combined  with  others,  such  as  grain  raising,  baby-beef  pro- 
duction, or  the  growing  of  forage  crops.  It  would  be  well  if  a  number 
of  pupils  were  to  work  together  in  a  cooperative  group,  using  a  short 
rotation  of  crops.  The  members  undertaking  this  work  should  be 
organized  into  a  club.  This  adds  zest  and  develops  the  spirit  of 
sympathetic  helpfulness,  in  place  of  that  selfish  rivalry  which  is  often 
the  fruit  of  contest  between  individuals.  The  basis  of  the  award  may 
be  as  follows : 

a.  The  plan  and  management  of  rotation 20 

b.  The  average  yield  per  acre 20 

c.  The  net  profit  on  investment •    .  20 

d.  The  fertile  condition  of  the  soil  at  the  time  of  rotation    .     .  20 

e.  Soil  and  crop  records,  with  written  report 20 

Total  score 100 

References 

The  Soil     F.  H.  King. 

Physics  of  Agriculture.     F.  H.  King. 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Washingtoji,  D.  C. 

245.   Renovation  of  Worn-out  Soils. 

320.    Management  of  Soil  to  Conserve  Moisture. 

406.   Soil  Conservation. 


PART   III 
CROPS 

CHAPTER  XI 

THE  NATURE  AND  WOEK  OF  PLANTS 


Plants  exercise  two  sets  of  functions,— growth  and  reproduction- 
The  higher  plants  may  be  said  to  have  three  sets  or  classes  of  organs  : 
those  that  have  relation  with  the  soil ;  those  that  Jiave  relation  with 
the  atmosphere  and  sunlight ;  those  that  are  concerned  with  repro- 
duction. —  Bailky.  

101.  Why  should  farmers  be  acquainted  with  plants?  It  is 
not  possible  to  grow  plants  successfully  unless  we  know 
something  about  their  character  and  habits.  It  is  true 
that  one  may  obtain  fair  results  by  rule-of-thurab  meth- 
ods when  working  under  the  directions  of  other  people  ; 
but  the  highest  rewards  come  to  those  who  know  why 
they  do  things.  We  have  already  studied  about  cer- 
tain foods  which  plants  must  have.  Every  one  knows 
that  plants  must  have  water.  But  why  do  they  need  it  ? 
What  purpose  does  it  serve  in  crop  growth  ?  Why  must 
we  supply  the  other  special  needs  of  plants?  The  man 
who  knows  these  why'%  not  only  supplies  the  needs  more 
intelligently,  but  also  finds  greater  joy  in  doing  so. 

So  even  the  average  farmer  is  better  off  for  knowing  a 
little  about  celh  and  protoplasm.  It  will  not  do  to  say 
that  sucli  subjects  belong  only  to  the  scientists. 

Many  common  activities  of  plants  cannot  be  understood 
without  this  knowledge.     Perhaps  a  boy  has  learned  how 

162 


PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS 


163 


to  graft  apple  trees;  if  he  wants  to  learn  wh^/  the  process 
works,  a  book  will  tell  him  that  the  cells  of  the  one  plant 
unite  with  those  of  the  other,  and  that  the  protoplasm  of 
these  cells  multiplies  rapidly  until  a  perfect  union  is  ef- 
fected. But  what  do  these  terms  mean?  Farm  papers 
and  farmers'  bulletins,  in  trying  to  explain  important 
matters,   are    compelled 


to  use  many  other  such 
terms.  The  farmer  who 
cannot  understand  them 
is  shut  out  from  the 
cheapest  and  most  ac- 
cessible information 
about  his  work. 

102.  Plants  and  Ani- 
mals.—  Any  one  can  dis- 
tinguish a  horse  from  a 
tree,  or  even  a  worm 
from  a  root.  The  horse 
grows  to  a  definite  size, 
moves  from  place  to 
place,  and  has  special 
organs  for  the  taking  in 
of  food  and  air.  In  a 
word,  it  has  a  complicated  body  whose  many  parts  have 
widely  different  structures  and  uses. 

A  tree  must  stay  where  it  has  been  planted  ;  its  limbs 
may  sway,  its  leaves  may  flutter,  and  its  roots  advance 
into  the  dark  soil,  but  it  cannot  move  away.  The  body 
of  the  tree,  too,  is  made  up  of  parts  that  show  differences 
of  structure  and  use,  but  these  parts  are  feiv  in  number 
and  simple  in  their  relation  to  one  another.  No  central 
station  like  the  brain  of  the  horse  controls  all  the  other 
parts  of  the  tree's  body.     Each  organ  of  the  tree  does  more 


Timothy  in  Bloom. 
Note  the  falling  anthers. 


164  THE  NATURE  AND    WORK  OF  PLANTS 

different  things  than  single  organs  of  the  horse  do.  The 
tree  does  not  have  so  many  separate  organs,  each  for  a  dis- 
tinct purpose,  as  the  horse  has.  It  has  no  eyes,  no  ears, 
no  teeth.     Its  structure  is  simpler  than  that  of  the  horse. 

When,  however,  we  go  down  the  scale  of  life  and  com- 
pare the  simpler  plants  with  the  simpler  animals,  it  grows 
harder  and  harder  to  tell  plant  from  animal.  The  sponge 
that  may  be  seen  in  the  ocean,  and  even  in  some  farm 
brooks,  cannot  move  from  place  to  place  although  it  is  an 
animal.. "!"  On  the  other  hand,  certain  low  plants,  like  the 
pond  scums  that  may  grow  beside  the  sponge,  have  much 
freedom^pf  motion. 

The  4j(fficulty  becomes  still  greater  when  we  come  to 
bacteri^i  For  more  than  a  century  after  they  were  dis- 
covered, they  were  taken  to  be  little  animals.  Now,  how- 
ever, they  are  regarded  as  plants. 

103.  Protoplasm.  —  The  white  of  an  egg  is  a  substance 
familiar  to  all  of  us.  It  is  jelly-like.  It  lacks  stable 
form ;  and,  if  pressed  between  the  fingers,  no  grit  is  felt 
in  it.  It  is  thicker  than  water,  of  which  it  is  mostly  com- 
posed. If  heated,  as  is  well  known,  it  coagulates;  that 
is,  it  becomes  white  and  opaque.  Certain  chemicals  also, 
like  alcohol,  will  coagulate  it.  A  lump  of  sugar  can  be 
kept,  at  ordinary  temperatures,  for  any  length  of  time, 
without  decomposing.  But  the  white  of  an  egg,  unless 
carefully  preserved,  soon  spoils  and  gives  off  an  offensive 
odor. 

This  white-of -egg  substance  we  call  albumen,,  or  protein. 
Now  protein  is  a  large  part  of  protoplasm,  about  which  we 
wish  to  learn.  Chemists  tell  us  that  protoplasm  is  ex- 
ceedingly complex.  Huxley,  a  great  English  scientist, 
called  it  "the  physical  basis  of  life."  It  is  present  in  all 
the  growing  parts  of  plants  and  animals,  and,  under  a 
powerful  microscope,  it  has  exactly  the  same  visible  char- 


HOW  PLANTS  GROW 


155 


acteristics,  whether  it  is  found  in  the  finger  of  man  or  in 
the  twig  of  a  tree. 

The  word  "  protoplasm  "  means  first  formed.  Every  part 
of  plants  and  animals  was  made  from  it.  In  reality,  it  is 
the  only  part  of  an  organism  that  can  grow.  Only  a  small 
part  of  a  tree  is  really  alive,  since  only  that  small  part 
contains  protoplasm. 

104.  Cells.  —  Protoplasm  does  not  usually  occur  in  large 
masses,  but  in  tiny  lumps,  each  separated  from  the  next 
by  a  more  or  less  distinct  wall. 
It  is  these  walls  that  give  the 
plant  strength.  Each  separate 
lump,  with  the  wall  about  it, 
is  called  a  cell.  If  one  had  eyes 
sharp  enough  to  see  all  the  cells 
of  a  stalk  of  corn  at  one  time, 
the  stalk  would  resemble  a  tall, 
oddly  shaped  building,  whose 
outside  walls  would  appear 
composed  of  irregular  masses 
cemented  together,  not  unlike 
the  stones  in  the  wall  of  an 
ordinary  house.  Within  the  stalk,  long,  hollow,  cell-like 
pipes  could  be  noticed  ;  and  around  the  pipes,  separating 
them  from  one  another,  countless  round  bodies  (the  pith 
cells)  might  be  observed.  The  cells  of  the  cornstalk  have 
many  different  shapes,  just  like  the  parts  of  this  imagi- 
nary building.  Some  cells  are  as  irregular  as  the  corn- 
stalk itself ;  others  have  the  shape  of  cubes,  wedges, 
plates,  or  strings. 

105.  How  Plants  Grow.  —  Floating  in  the  protoplasm  of 
each  live  cell  is  a  small  rounded  body  known  as  the 
nucleus.  This  nucleus  is  an  important  agent  in  the 
growth  of  new  cells.     Cells,  as  we  have  said,  never  attain 


Plant  Cells. 

As  seen  in  a  growing  onion 
root. 


156  THE  NATURE  AND    WORK  OF  PLANTS 

a  large  size,  although  they  may  grow  rapidly.  If  well 
nourished,  each  nucleus  quickly  divides  into  two  nuclei. 
(^Nil'cle  i  is  the  plural  of  uii'cle  us.)  A  new  wall  appears 
between  these  nuclei,  forming  them  into  two  cells.  When 
either  of  these  has  enlarged  to  the  size  of  its  parent,  it  is 
ready  to  divide  again,  and  so  on.  When  we  speak  of 
plants  growing,  we  mean  that  their  cells  are  multiplying 
in  this  way. 

Cells  take  in  food  through  their  surfaces,  and  the 
amount  of  food  that  can  enter  them  depends  in  part  on 
the  extent  of  their  surfaces.  Just  as  a  pea  has  a  greater 
surface  in  comparison  to  its  bulk  than  an  orange  has,  so  a 
small  cell  has  more  feeding  surface  relatively  to  its  needs 
than  a  large  one  has.  This  means  that  the  larger  cells 
become,  the  greater  their  chances  of  starving.  Cell  mul- 
tiplication, then,  is  a  means  of  saving  the  life  of  plants,  as 
well  as  a  process  of  growth. 

106.  Plants  as  Storehouses  of  Food.  —  Every  plant  has 
some  part  which  it  uses  for  a  storehouse.  Plants  do  not 
use  up  for  their  own  growth  all  the  food  that  they  gather. 
They  do  so  for  a  while,  it  is  true,  until  they  secure  a  sea- 
son's growth.  Then  they  begin  to  store  up  the  plant 
food  —  in  seeds  or  roots  or  tubers  — for  their  offspring  the 
next  season.  The  farmer  takes  this  stored-up  food  for  his 
own  purposes,  just  as  a  bee  farmer  takes  the  food  his  bees 
have  stored  away. 

Food  stored  in  the  plant  always  contains  both  albumen 
(^protein')  and  starchy  but  different  plants  store  these  things 
in  very  different  proportions.  Some,  like  beans,  are  rich 
in  albumen  ;  others,  like  corn,  in  starch.  Albumen  is  the 
tissue-building  part.  Starch  furnishes  heat,  or  energy. 
The  albuminous  foods,  or  proteins,  contain  nitrogen  (Chap- 
ter VIII);  the  starch  is  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen. 
It    is   called   a   carbohydrate.     Another    carbohydrate   is 


THE  STORING  PROCESS 


157 


^^:^i^^k^'>^m<. 


sugar,   which,   in    composition,   is    almost    the   same   as 
starch. 

107.  The  storing  process  is  exceedingly  interesting,  and 
the  farmer  ought  to  understand  it.  Starch  is  formed 
mostly  in  the  leaves.  The  sunlight  and  the  green  sub- 
stance of  the  leaves 
(^chlorophyll)  manufac- 
ture it  out  of  carbon  di- 
oxide and  water.  ^  The 
rest  of  the  process  varies 
in  different  plants.  In 
the  potato  plant  the 
starch  is  next  turned 
into  sugar.  The  sap  then 
dissolves  tliis  sugar,^  and 
carries  it  to  the  under- 
ground tubers,  where  it 
is  turned  back  into  starch 
and  stored  away.  In 
some  plants,  during 
these  parts  of  the  pro- 
cess, deposits  of  sugar  itself  are  formed.  Other  plants 
form  deposits  of  gums,  —  which  are  always  nearly  like 
starch  and  sugar  in  composition.  Still  other  plants  deposit 
fatty  substances  that  we  call  oils.  Vegetable  oils  are 
found  especially  in  the  olive,  in  cotton  seed,  and  in  nuts. 
The  coconut  is  an  extreme  instance  of  an  oily  food 
deposit.     Fats,  like  carbohydrates,  furnish  heat. 

1  In  this  part  of  the  process,  some  oxygen  is  thrown  off  into  the  air  as  a 
by-product.  Plants  breathe  through  fine  pores  usually  on  the  under  side 
of  their  leaves,  much  as  the  higher  animals  breathe  through  their  nostrils. 
But  animals  take  the  air  for  the  sake  of  its  oxygen,  and  their  lungs  throw 
ofif  into  the  air  carbon  dioxide.  Plants  breathe  largely  to  get  this  carbon 
dioxide,  and  throw  off  some  oxygen.  However,  plants  do  consume  some 
oxygen,  and  in  this  respect  they  resemble  animals. 

*  It  cannot  well  dissolve  starch. 


Chlorophyll  Bodies  of  a  Leaf. 

Note  the  separate  cells,  each  containing 
about  half  a  dozen  chlorophyll  bodies. 


168  THE  NATURE  AND    WORK   OF  PLANTS 

108.  The  plant  is  a  factory  which  works  only  hy  daylight. 
No  starch  can  be  made  without  sunlight.  Sunlight  may 
be  looked  upon  as  the  power  that  runs  the  factory,  as 
steam  runs  a  mill. 

We  may  carry  this  comparison  further.  A  shoe 
factory,  besides  its  power,  needs  a  variety  of  materials, 
—  wood,  leather,  nails,  and  so  on.  If  the  supply  of  shoe 
pegs  has  been  allowed  to  run  out,  all  the  work  must  stop, 
though  everything  else  is  ready  at  hand.  So,  too,  the 
absence  of  only  one  of  the  things  needed  by  the  plant 
factory  may  cause  it  to  suspend  work  and  die.  Sunlight, 
warmth,  water,  the  various  plant  foods  in  available  forms, 
all  must  be  secured  in  the  degree  needful.  A  lack  of  any 
one  will  damage  or  destroy  the  crop. 

Practical  Qckstions 

1.  Distinguish  between  plants  and  animals.  2.  What  are  the 
characteristics    of   protoplasm?      3.   Name   three   parts    of   a   cell. 

4.  Compare   the  parts  of  a  building   with   the  parts  of  a  plant. 

5.  Explain  how  cells  are  useful  to  plants.  6.  Why  do  cells  divide? 
7.  Explain  how  a  plant  may  be  likened  to  a  factory.  8.  Of  what 
advantage  to  the  plant  is  it  to  store  up  food  or  energy?  9.  Explain 
how  man  profits  by  the  tendency  of  certain  plants  to  store  up  food. 
10.  Review  the  uses  of  water  to  a  plant.  11.  Name  three  gases  use- 
ful to  plants.  12.  How  do  plants  breathe  ?  13.  Name  six  mineral 
substances  found  in  plants. 

Home  Exercises 

1.  Make  an  estimate  of  the  number  of  different  plants  you  can  find 
on  your  farm.  You  can  readily  determine  the  area  of  the  different 
fields,  and  you  can  count  the  number  of  plants  in  an  average  square 
foot  of  each  field.  A  simple  calculation  would  give  you  the  entire 
number. 

2.  Collect  as  many  different  kinds  of  wood  as  you  can  and  com- 
pare their  hardness,  stiffness,  and  readiness  to  split.  How  does  the 
nature  of  wood  determine  its  uses  for  handles,  spokes,  flooring,  and 
so  on? 


REFERENCES  159 

3.  Compare  a  piece  of  meat  with  a  tip  of  a  growing  plant.  In 
what  ways  do  they  differ? 

Suggestions 

1.  Make  a  list  of  some  of  the  characteristics  of  a  tree  and  another 
list  of  those  of  the  horse,  and  underscore  those  that  are  common  to 
both. 

2.  Procure  an  egg  and  open  it  in  a  small  dish.  Note  the  absence 
of  grit  when  a  bit  of  the  albumen  is  rubbed  between  the  fingers. 
Place  a  small  quantity  of  the  albumen  in  water  to  see  if  it  sinks. 
Then  boil  the  water  and  note  the  effect.  Vinegar  or  alcohol  poured 
on  some  of  the  albumen  will  produce  the  same  effect.     Try  it. 

3.  Take  a  bit  of  moist  clay  the  size  of  a  walnut.  Into  the  soft 
mass  press  a  pebble  the  size  of  a  pea.  Procure  a  small  box  just  large 
enough  to  hold  the  mass.  Mold  the  mass  to  the  form  of  the  box 
and  place  it  inside.  The  box  represents  the  cell  wall ;  the  clay  repre- 
sents the  protoplasm  ;  and  the  pebble,  the  nucleus  of  a  cell.  Old  cells 
may  lack  the  nucleus  and  protoplasm,  and  an  empty  box  of  any  form 
would  therefore  represent  them,  except  that  usually  the  sides  of  a 
"  dead  "  cell  are  packed  closely  together. 

4.  Coat  a  small  plant  with  a  thin  smear  of  vaseline,  and  note  the 
effect.  The  vaseline  prevents  the  loss  of  water,  and  the  entrance  and 
exit  of  gases. 

5.  Burn  a  match.     What  remains  is  mineral  matter. 

References 

Some  good  textbook  in  Botany. 

Haml  Book  of  Nature  Study.     Comstock. 

Plant  Culture.     Goff. 

Study  of  Corn.     Shoesmith. 

Farmers'  Bulletins.     Washington,  D.  C. 

195.     Simple  Exercises  Illustrating  Some  Applications  of   Chem- 
istry to  Agriculture. 

218.     The  School  Garden. 

408.     School  Exercises  in  Plant  Production. 


CHAPTER  XII 

HOW  NEW  PLANTS   AEE  STARTED 


In  the  moTtiing  sow  thy  seed.  —  Eoolmiastm  xI.  «. 


"rt>ij  ^ 


•s?^~-0- 


109.  A  pUmt  is  bom,  grows,  and  finally  dies,  much  like  an 
animal.  Like  animals,  too,  each  kind  of  plant  has  a  quite 
definite  term  of  life.  A  grain  of  corn  may  be  planted  in 
May,  and  by  October  the  plant  will  die.     A  turnip  may 

start  to  grow  in  April 
and  live  through  the 
second  summer.  Within 
an  apple  blossom  a  new 
apple  tree  begins  a  life 
that  endures  perhaps  for 
a  century.  Many  trees 
of  the  forest  live  for 
several  centuries ;  but 
for  each  one,  under  even 
the  most  favorable  con- 
ditions, a  certain  period 
of  growth  is  followed  by 
a  period  of  decay  and 
finally  by  death. 

110.  Daring  its  lifetime,  each  plant  is  bnsied  largely  in  re- 
producing itself  in  new  plants.  Its  wliole  character  is 
adapted  to  the  particuhir  way  in  which  it  "propagates" 
itself,  or  extends  its  life  around  it  and  into  the  future. 
But  man  needs  many  kinds  of  plants  in  greater  numbers 

160 


•^  %  -•  ^ 


v-4.     i 


Millet  Seed. 
By  which  the  plant  is  "  propagated." 


FLOWERS 


161 


than  could  be  found  if  they  were  left  to  their  own  efforts 
in  this  matter.  A  chief  part  of  the  farmer's  work,  there- 
fore, in  field,  garden,  and  orchard  is  to  help  useful  plants 
propagate.     To  do  this  best,  he  needs  to  know  the  methods 


The  Life  Story  of  a  Pear. 
Twig,  bud,  blossom,  and  fruit. 

by  which  plants  work  by  themselves.     First  of  all  he  must 
understand  their  flowers. 

111.  Flowers.  —  Most  plants,  including  nearly  all  found 
in  our  fields,  reproduce  themselves  through  seed.  Seed  is 
always  formed  from  parts  of  a  flower.  Flowers  are  not 
always  showy  and  fragrant,  like  the  flower  of  the  rose. 
The  blossoms  of  wheat,  oats,  timothy,  or  other  grasses 
are  very  small  and  have  little  color.  Still  the  wheat 
flower  is  more  important  to  the  wheat  plant  than  is  the 
rose  flower  to  the  rose  plant  —  and  much  more  important 
to  us. 


162 


now  NEW  PLANTS  ARE  STARTED 


112.  Flower  Farts. — ^In  the  blossom  of  the  common 
pear^  you  can  easily  notice  four  whorls,  each  of  a  distinct 
kind.  (1)  The  outside  whorl  is  made  up  of  five  green 
leaves.  (2)  Next  within  is  a  whorl  of  five  large  white 
leaves.  The  outside  whorl  is  the  calyx^  and  each  of  its 
leaves  is  a  upal.  The  second  whorl  is  the  corolla^  and 
each  of  its  leaves  is  a  petal.     (3)  The  base  of  the  calyx 


Staminate  Flowers  and  Pollen  of  Corn  Plant. 


supports  a  third  whorl  of  several  thread-like  parts.  These 
are  the  stamens.  Each  stamen  has  at  its  tip  a  little  sac 
called  the  anther.  (4)  At  the  center  of  the  blossom  are 
the  pistils^  three  to  five  of  them.  They  resemble  the 
stamens.  Their  stalks  or  styles  all  come  from  one  point 
at  the  center  of  the  flower,  but  lack  the  brightly  colored 
heads  or  anthers,  and  have  green  heads,  or  stigmas^  instead. 
Were  we  to  pull  apart  the  urn-shaped  base  of  the  calyx, 
we  should  find  the  pistils  extending  to  the  center  of  the 


^  If  the  pear  blossom  is  not  available  for  this  examination,  the  teacher  or 
class  can  easily  find  some  other  dower  that  shows  sepals,  petals,  stamens, 
and  pistils,  though  the  number  of  parts  may  differ  from  those  of  the  flower 
described  here. 


STAMEN  AND  PISTIL 


163 


urn,  where  they  unite  into  a  central  mass  known  as  the 
ovari/ ;  the  ovary  will  form  the  core  of  the  pear  and  the 
calyx  the  soft  pulp  outside  the  core.  The  calyx  also 
serves  as  a  fleshy  wrapper  to  the  delicate  ovary. 

113.  What  is  the  work  of  each  of  the  flower  parts?  The 
calyx  protects  the  bud  when  starting,  and,  later  on,  it  fur- 
nishes some  starch  to  the  grow- 
ing seeds.  The  corolla  is  need- 
ful to  attract  insects.  Grains 
of  the  fine  flower  dust  called 
pollen  are  produced  in  the  sta- 
men's anther.  When  pollen 
falls  upon  the  pistil's  stigma, 
that  organ  absorbs  it,  and 
passes  it  down  through  the 
style  to  the  ovary,  where  there 
are  already  minute  egg-like 
bodies  called  ovules.  The  pollen 
fertilizes  these  ovules;  that  is, 
it  joins  with  them  to  make 
them  grow  into  seeds.  No 
seed  can  be  formed  without 
this  union  of  pollen  and  ovule. 

114.  The  stamen  and  pistil, 
accordingly,  are  the  essential 
parts  of  the  flower.  Both  are 
absolutely  necessary  to  the 
production  of  seed,  which  is 
the  purpose  of  flowers.     Calyx 

and  corolla  may  assist  in  one  way  or  another,  but  they  are 
not  essential  parts.  Many  kinds  of  flowers  do  not  have 
them.  The  cornflower  does  not,  but  it  produces  much  seed. 
Indeed,  no  one  cornflower  has  both  stamens  and  pistil. 
The  tassels  at  the  top  of  a  stalk  are  clusters  of  staminate 


Corn  Tassel. 
Staminate  flowers. 


164 


now  NEW  PLANTS  ARE  STARTED 


flowers  (flowers  with  stamens).*  If  you  shake  a  stalk  of 
corn  when  the  anther  sacs  have  the  pollen  ready,  a  cloud 
of  yellow  powder  will  fall  from  the  tassels,  looking  like  a 
shower  of  sulphur. 

The  pistillate  cornflowers  grow  lower  on  the  stalk 
in  one  or  more  bunches,  or  "ears."     If  you  pull  away  the 

husk  from  a  young  ear 


soon  after  the  silk  begins 
to  show,  you  will  see 
that  each  of  the  many 
silk  threads  ends  in  a 
kernel.  This  kernel  is 
an  ovary ;  each  thread 
of  silk  is  both  style  and 
stigma  ;  kernel  and  silk 
together  form  a  pistillate 
flower.  The  pollen  from 
some  tassel  flower  at  the 
top  falls  upon  the  many 
silk  stigmas  of  each  ear 
and  is  carried  down  to 
the  bunch  of  ovaries.^ 
Flowers  that  contain  both  stamens  and  pistils  are  called 
perfect  flowers,  whether  calyx  and  corolla  are  present  or 
not.     Flowers  that  lack  either  stamens  or  pistils  are  im- 


CoRN  Silk. 
Pistillate  flowers. 


>  These  flowers  are  very  small.  They  grow  along  the  spikes  of  the  tassels, 
in  couplets.  Eac-h  flower  is  nearly  inclosed  in  a  hard,  ribbed  covering  called 
glume.  If  this  is  pressed  aside  with  a  pin,  one  can  see  three  stamens,  partly 
surrounded  perhaps  by  an  inner  wrapping.  Usually  only  one  flower  of  each 
couple  pro<luces  pollen. 

3  Tlie  pistillate  cornflowers  in  the  ear  have  interesting  likenesses  to  the 
staminate  flowers  of  the  taasel.  Thus  the  flowers  on  the  ear,  too,  grow  in 
couples.  If  we  examine  the  young  ear  with  great  care,  a  sterile  grain  will  be 
found  under  the  fertile  one-  And  each  grain  of  the  couple  is  inclosed  in  outer 
and  inner  wrappings.  These  show  on  the  cob  when  the  ripe  corn  has  been 
shelled. 


CROSS-POLLINATION  165 

perfect  flowers,  even  if  they  have  both  calyx  and  corolla. 
The  pear  blossom  that  was  described  above  was  a  perfect 
flower;  each  kind  of  cornflower  is  imperfect. 

115.  Cross-pollination.  —  Even  in  some  kinds  of  perfect 
flowers  the  pistil  often  gets  its  pollen  from  the  stamen  of  an- 
other flower  instead  of  from  its  own  stamen.  All  clover 
blossoms  have  both  stamen  and  pistil ;  but  the  pollen  and 
ovules  of   the  same  blossom  do  not  readily  unite.     The 


Effect  of  Poor  Pollination. 

pistil  uses  pollen  brought  to  it  from  another  blossom. 
This  is  cross-pollination. 

With  farm  plants,  cross-pollination  is  far  more  common 
than  self-pollination.  Nature  seems  to  have  found  out 
that  cross-pollination  gives  more  vigorous  plants.  Charles 
Darwin,  one  of  the  world's  greatest  scientists,  proved  by 
experiments  that  when  cabbage  flowers  used  their  own 
pollen,  they  grew  heads  only  a  fourth  as  heavy  as  when 
they  used  pollen  from  another  cabbage. 

116.  In  cross-pollination  how  is  the  pollen  carried  from  plant 
to  plant?  The  wind  carries  corn  pollen.  Most  of  it  falls 
on  the  ground  or  on  other  plants  ;  but  each  stalk  pro- 
duces a  large  amount,  and  its  high  place  on  the  plant 
helps  the  wind  to  distribute  it  well,  so  as  to  powder  nearly 
every  bunch  of  corn  silk  with  it.^ 

1  If  the  corn  silk  receives  pollen  from  the  tassel  of  its  own  stalk,  the  polli- 
nation is  not  cross-pollination,  because  both  flowers  belong  to  the  same  plant. 
Corn  uses  both  self-pollination  and  cross-pollination. 


166 


HOW  NEW  PLANTS  ARE  STARTED 


The  wind,  too,  is  one  agent  in  transferring  the  pollen 
of  other  plants  from  flower  to  flower,  but  many  plants 
would  fail  to  produce  seed  if  nature  did  not  also  use  other 
less  wasteful  devices.  In  a  field  of  red  clover  in  blossom, 
bumblebees  are  usually  busy  visiting  flower  after  flower. 
Commonly,  the  yellow  pollen  can  be  seen  sticking  to  parts 
of  their  bodies.     When  a  bee  enters  a  flower,  he  brushes 

off  upon  it  part  of  the 


pollen  he  brings  with 
him  ;  and,  before  he 
leaves,  his  body  collects 
some  fresh  pollen  to 
carry  on  to  the  next 
plant. 

The  clover  blossom 
and  the  bumblebee  are 
especially  suited  to  each 
other.  The  long  tongue 
of  the  insect  just  reaches 
the  nectar  of  the  flower ; 
the  blossom  has  the  tint 
of  red  which,  experi- 
ments show,  is  particu- 
larly attractive  to  the 
bee,^  and  the  clustering  of  many  small  flowers  in  one  head 
makes  it  easy  for  the  visitor  to  carry  pollen  to  them  all 
with  little  loss  of  time. 

Red  clover  gives  two  crops  in  a  season :  one  early  in  the 
summer;  the  other  in  the  late  summer  or  early  fall.  Even 
if  the  first  crop  is  allowed  to  stand,  it  produces  little  seed, 
though  blossoms  have  been  abundant  and  vigorous.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  second  crop,  if  permitted  to  ripen,  is 


m  *? 

^^' 

^ 

f  1 

7 

hhhuhih 

Buckwheat  Plant  in  Blossom. 


1  Probably,  however,  the  bees  like  this  color  only  because  it  is  the  color  of 
the  flower  where  they  usually  find  food. 


OTHER  METHODS  OF  PROPAGATION  167 

usually  profitable  for  seed.  Farmers  have  known  these 
facts  for  a  long  time,  but  only  recently  have  they  known 
that  the  difference  between  the  two  crops  is  due  to  the 
habits  of  the  bumblebee.  In  the  spring,  when  the  first 
crop  is  in  blossom,  bumblebees  are  rarely  seen;  and  the 
few  that  have  survived  the  winter  can  cross-pollinate  only 
a  small  proportion  of  the  flowers.  But  by  the  time  the 
second  crop  is  in  blossom,  the  colonies  of  bumblebees 
have  multiplied,  and  many  more  of  the  flowers  are  cross- 
pollinated. 

The  honeybee  has  a  tongue  too  short  to  reach  the 
nectar  of  the  red  clover,  but  for  multitudes  of  other 
flowers  it  is  a  most  efficient  pollen  carrier.  Butterflies, 
some  moths,  and  humming  birds  help  in  a  like  way. 
Usually  a  study  of  any  one  of  these  creatures  and  of  the 
flowers  it  visits  most  will  show  some  striking  way  in  which 
the  blossom  and  its  helpful  visitor  are  suited  to  each  other, 
as  bumblebee  and  clover  are. 

117.  Other  Methods  of  Propagation.  — Many  plants  propa- 
gate themselves  in  other  ways  besides  by  seed.  This  used 
to  seem  very  strange.  Some  years  ago,  however,  August 
Weismann,  a  famous  German  scientist,  advanced  the 
theory  that  all  life  comes  from  a  certain  form  of  proto- 
plasm which  he  called  germ  plasm.  In  the  higher  animals 
this  germ  plasm  is  found  only  in  the  organs  of  reproduc- 
tion; but  in  plants  it  is  more  or  less  distributed  through  all 
their  live  tissue.  This  is  why  we  can  propagate  some 
plants  from  shoots  or  by  grafting  and  budding. 

Many  plants,  to  be  sure,  have  little  germ  plasm  except 
in  the  flower.  Such  plants  can  be  propagated  to  advantage 
only  from  their  seed.  In  other  plants,  the  germ  plasm 
permeates  the  entire  structure,  or  at  least  various  parts 
besides  the  flower.  Many  plants  reproduce  themselves 
underground  by  tubers,  like  the  potato,  or  by  new  shoots 


168  HOW  NEW  PLANTS  ARE  STARTED 

from  the  germ  plasm  in  the  roots,  as  shrubs  and  trees  will 
do.  The  willow  will  produce  offspring  from  its  twigs,  if 
they  are  cut  off  and  placed  in  the  ground  properly.     The 


Seed  Balls  and  Flowers  of  the  Potato  Plant. 

begonia  and  other  similar  plants  have  the  reproductive 
power  even  in  the  leaf. 

118.  The  Two  Great  Ways  of  Propagating  Plants.  —  All 
these  various  methods  of  propagation  are  classed  under 
two  heads,  sexual  and  asexual  (non-sexual). 

a.  The  seed  method  is  sexual.  Stamens  and  pistils  are 
sex  organs  of  plants.  The  pollen  from  the  stamen  con- 
tains tiny  particles  of  male  protoplasm ;  the  ovules  of  the 
pistil  contain  female  protoplasm.  The  union  of  the  two 
kinds  produces  an  active  germ  plasm  in  the  seed. 

b.  Propagation  from  roots  and  cuttings,  and  indeed  by 
all  methods  except  by  seed,  is  asexual.  The  new  plant 
may  be  said  to  have  a  mother  but  no  father.  The 
tendency  to  likeness  between  offspring  and  parent  is 
much  stronger  in  this  kind  of  reproduction  than  in  re- 
production by  seed. 


SUGGESTIONS     .  ■  169 

Practical  Questions 

1.  What  are  flowers,  and  what  is  their  purpose?  2,  What  is 
meant  by  reproduction  ?  3.  Do  all  flowering  plants  reproduce  by 
seeds  ?  4.  Describe  a  pear  blossom  or  any  other  blossom.  5.  How 
many  parts  are  there  to  a  pear  blossom  ?  6.  Give  the  function  or 
use  of  each  part.  7.  Define  self-pollination  and  cross-pollination. 
8.  How  do  plants  secure  cross-pollination  ?  9.  In  what  ways  are  the 
bumblebees  and  the  blossoms  of  the  red  clover  suited  to  each  other? 
10.  Account  for  the  small  amount  of  seed  in  the  first  crop  of  red 
clover.  11.  Have  you  ever  noticed  any  insects  besides  bees  visiting 
flowers?       12.    Distinguish  between  a  perfect  and  an  imperfect  flower. 

13.  Describe   the    two    kinds    of    flowers    borne    on    the    cornstalk. 

14.  Will  the  grains  of  corn  develop  without  pollen?       15.    How  do 
you  account  for  cobs  only  partly  filled  out  with  corn  ? 

Home  Exercises 

1.  Ascertain  how  each  farm  plant  reproduces.  Have  you  ever 
seen  flowers  on  potato  plants?  Examine  a  head  of  wheat  shortly 
after  the  flowers  have  appeared.  Is  the  pollen  carried  from  head  to 
head  ? 

2.  Collect  all  the  different  farm  flowers  that  you  can  find,  and  de- 
scribe those  of  the  leading  crops.     Bring  report  along  to  school. 

Suggestions 

1.  In  learning  the  names  of  the  parts  of  a  flower  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  select  flowers  for  study  that  belong  to  the  daisy  family 
or  that  are  very  small.     Large,  simple  specimens  should  be  selected. 

2.  The  flower  selected  should  be  pulled  apart,  and  its  parts  care- 
fully noted  and  described. 

3.  An  effort  should  be  made  to  determine  which  flowers  are 
visited  by  insects  and  which  are  not.  This  work  must  be  done  in 
the  field.  The  kinds  of  flowers  visited  should  be  noted.  It  is 
interesting  to  determine  whether  showy  and  fragrant  flowers  are 
more  frequently  visited  than  other  kinds. 

4.  Bring  to  the  schoolroom  a  few  red  clover  blossoms.  Count  the 
number  of  flowers  in  each  head,  and  look  for  the  nectar  glands.  An 
interesting  exercise  would  be  to  study  the  red  clover  blossoms  in  the 
field  for  the  kinds  of  insect  visitor^. 


170  now  NEW  PLANTS  ARE  STARTED 

5.   Dissect  and  draw  the  parts  of  the  two  kinds  of  flowers  borne  on 
the  cornstalk. 

References 

Botanies. 

Familiar  Flotoers  of  Field  and  Garden.     Matthews. 

Practical  Floriculture.     Henderson. 

In  God's  Out  of  Doors.     Quayle. 

Cornell  Nature  Study  Quarterly,  No.  2.     Ithaca,  N.Y. 


CHAPTER   XIII 

MORE  ABOUT  STARTING  NEW  PLANTS 


Contact  with  nature  affords  a  better  tonic  and  nervine  than  the 
pharmacist  can  compound.  —  Card. 


I.   REPRODUCTION 

To  start  plants  to  the  best  advantage,  we  should  know  more  about 
them.  First  we  will  consider  some  more  facts  that  concern  reproduc- 
tion by  seed. 


^  M^mffi 


S.f  I 


1 1« 


Sections  of  Corn  Kernels. 

In  the  top  row  the  kernel  is  cut  lengthwise;  in  the  middle  row,  cross- 
wise; in  the  bottom  row,  flatwise.  The  white  part  is  starch;  the  gray 
part,  germ. 

171 


172 


MORE  ABOUT  STARTING  NEW  PLANTS 


119.  Seeds  and  Embryos.  —  Two  common  types  of  seed 
are  represented  by  the  bean  and  the  corn. 

a.  A  bean  seed  can  easily  be  split  into  two  equal  parts, 
called  cotyledons.  Attached  to  one  end  of  the  seed, 
between  the  cotyledons,  are  a  pair  of  miniature  leaves 
called  the  plumule,  and  a  short  root  sprout  known  as  the 

radicle.  The  three 
parts  together  form  the 
embryo.  This  contains 
the  germ  plasm  that  was 
formed  by  the  union  of 
pollen  and  ovules. 

Plants  whose  leaves 
are  net-veined  and 
which  bear  flowers  hav- 
ing usually  four  or  five 
divisions  to  their  calyx 
and  corolla  produce 
seeds  of  the  bean  type. 
h.  A  grain  of  corn 
cannot  readily  be  split 
apart  into  halves.  A 
cross  section  of  the  ker- 
nels, especially  if  the 
seed  has  been  soaked 
in  water,  will  show  the  embryo  at  the  base.  This  embryo 
or  germ  consists  of  one  irregular  cotyledon,  a  plumule 
made  of  sheathing  leaves,  and  a  radicle.  Occupying 
the  broad  end  of  the  grain  is  the  endosperm,  —  a  mate- 
rial that  is  mostly  starch,  to  feed  the  embryo  when  it 
sprouts. 

This  corn  type  of  seed  is  found  in  plants  that  have 
parallel-veined  leaves  and  that  bear  flowers  with  the  parts 
commonly  arranged  by  threes  or  by  sixes. 


Poor  Alfalfa  Seed. 
Before  testing. 


NEEDS   OF  THE  SEED  178 

120.  Seed  should  be  tested  to  determine  what  per  cent 
of  it  will  sprout  and  to  find  out  whether  it  contains  im- 
purities such  as  dirt,  weed  seeds,  and  chaff.  Farmers 
often  lose  heavily  by  using  poor  seed.  The  Iowa  Experi- 
ment Station  at  one  time  tested  3300  samples  of  seed  corn 
and  found  only  sixty  per  cent  of  the  samples  good  enough 
to  use.  Under  the  most  favorable  conditions  this  seed  as 
a  whole  would  produce  but  little  more  than  half  a  crop. 

121.  The  quantity  of  seed  to  sow  to  the  acre  varies  some- 
what with  the  character  of  the  soil  and  with  its  prepara- 
tion. 

The  following  table  of  a  few  common  kinds  of  seeds 
shows  the  quantity  of  each  that  has  been  found  most 
profitable  for  an  acre  of  average  land  in  good  tilth. 

Alfalfa  (broadcast) 9  to  12  quarts 

Alfalfa  (drilled) 6  to    8  quarts 

Clover  (alsike)       5  to  10  quarts 

Clover  (red) 6  to  10  quarts 

Corn 5  to    7  quarts 

Corn  (for  silage) 9  to  12  quarts 

Oats 2to3  bushels 

Potatoes 10  to  20  bushels 

Rye 4  to    8  pecks 

Timothy 1  to    2  pecks 

Wheat f 6  to  10  pecks 

122.  Needs  of  the  Seed.  —  A  seed  is  a  plantlet  asleep,  or 
in  its  resting  stage.  It  may  live  a  long  time  without 
change,  if  kept  cool  and  dry ;  or  it  may  awaken  to  activity 
in  a  few  days,  if  kept  warm  and  moist.  Good  seed  will 
not  sprout  well  in  an  ice  chest,  even  with  plenty  of  air 
and  water ;  nor  will  it  do  so  in  a  well-corked  bottle  with 
sufficient  water  and  the  proper  degree  of  heat;  nor  in  a 
dry  room  with  warmth  and  air.  Warmth,  air,  and  mois- 
ture, all  three,  must  be  present  in  the  soil  for  the  awak- 
ening of  the  seed. 


174 


MORE  ABOUT  STARTING  NEW  PLANTS 


123.  The  Seedling.  —  A  young  plant  that  comes  from  a 

seed  is  called  a  seedling. 
This  name  is  likewise 
applied  even  to  many 
mature  plants  started 
from  seeds,  if  such  plants 
are  commonly  propagated 
in  other  ways  also.  The 
term  seedling  apple,  for 
example,  distinguishes 
an  apple  plant  started 
from  the  seed,  from  a 
plant  started  from 
Good  Alfalfa  Seed.  shootS. 

Before  testing.  A  young  seedling  at 

first  depends  for  food  on  the  material  stored  up  within  its 

seed   coats.     A   critical 

period  in  its  early  life 
comes  when  it  has  ex- 
hausted its  own  food 
material,  and  has  not 
yet  formed  enough  leaf- 
age and  rootage  to  sup- 
ply fully  the  demands 
of  its  growth.  During 
this  period  —  a  few  days 
or  longer  —  the  seedling 
is  very  tender  and  deli- 
cate. If  planted  too 
deep,  it  may  find  the 
soil  around  its  roots  too 
cold  or  lacking  in  fresh 
air.     If  planted  too  near 


Alfalfa  Seeds  After  Testing. 

Note  that  some  have  not  sprouted  at  all, 
while  others  have  sprouts  an  inch  long. 


the  surface,  it  may  suffer  from  lack  of  moisture.      The 


DEPTH  OF  PLANTING 


175 


farmer,  then,  should  be  careful  not  to  bury  the  seeds  too 
deep  nor  to  plant  them  too  near  the  surface.  He  should 
be  especially  careful  also  to  have  the  seed  bed  warm, 
moist,  and  mellow,  so  that  the  seed  may  germinate 
quickly  and  shoot  up  rapidly,  and  so  get  through  its  crit- 
ical stage  in  as  short  a 
time  as  possible. 

124.  Roughly  speaking, 
the  depth  at  which  a  seed 
should  be  planted  depends 
upon  its  size.  Large 
seeds  need  deep  plant- 
ing; small  seeds  require 
shallow  planting.  It  is 
a  common  practice  to 
broadcast  clover  seeds 
on  the  winter  wheat  in 
early  spring  (Chapter 
XXI),  and  trust  to 
spring  rains  or  to  the 
freezing  and  thawing  of 
the  ground  to  cover 
them  sufficiently.  Let- 
tuce seeds  are  sown  on 
the  surface  and  pressed  in  slightly  with  a  board.  In  one 
series  of  experiments,  wheat  planted  at  the  depth  of  one 
half  inch  required  eleven  days  to  come  up ;  that  planted 
three  inches  deep  required  twenty  days,  and  that  planted 
six  inches,  twenty-three  days.  Moreover,  only  one  third  of 
the  seeds  planted  under  six  inches  of  soil  grew,  while  three 
fourths  of  those  planted  under  three  inches  of  soil  grew 
and  flourished.  Such  experiments  have  been  made  upon 
many  kinds  of  seeds,  and  it  is  worth  while  for  farmers  to 
know  the  results. 


Roots  of  Wheat  Seedlings. 

The  one  on  the  left  was  grown  in  sand ; 
the  other,  in  water. 


176  MOBE  ABOUT  8TABTING  NEW  PLANTS 

n.    NON-SEXUAL   PROPAGATION:    PARTS  OF  THE 
PLANT   CONCERNED 

To  understaud  better  the  non-sexual  propagation  of  plants  it  is 
necessary  to  know  more  about  their  stems,  roots,  buds,  and  leaves,  — 
the  parts  by  which  they  are  propagated. 

125.  Stems.  —  Most  farm  plants  have  one  or  the  other  of 
two  kinds  of  stem.  One  kind  is  illustrated  by  the  pear 
tree  ;  the  other,  by  corn. 

a.  An  examination  of  a  stem  of  a  pear  tree  ^  will  show 
three  distinct  groups  of  tissue  in  it:  the  hark;  the  cambium; 
and  the  wood. 

(1)  In  the  hark.,  especially  in  the  bark  of  new  stems, 
numerous  openings  may  be  seen,  about  as  large  as  ordinary 
pinheads.  These  are  breathing  pores  for  the  deeper  layers 
of  bark.  The  bark  serves  mainly  to  protect  this  next  group 
of  very  tender,  liquid-like  tissue. 

(2)  This  middle  group  of  tissue,  between  bark  and  wood, 
is  the  cambium.  From  the  viewpoint  of  growth  and  re- 
production, it  18  the  vital  part  of  the  stem.  Its  cells  contain 
protoplasm  in  a  more  active  form  than  in  those  of  any 
other  part  of  the  stem ;  and  some  of  this  is  germ  plasm  and 
may  create  a  new  plant. 

There  are  two  layers  of  cambium  cells:  one  adhering 
to  the  inside  bark;  the  other,  to  the  outside  wood.  The 
two  together  are  about  as  thick  as  a  leaf  of  the  paper  in 
this  book.  A  boy  often  sees  the  two  cambium  layers  of 
the  willow  when  making  willow  whistles  in  the  spring. 
After  hammering  the  bark  to  loosen  it,  he  pulls  it  away 
from  a  piece  of  the  stem;  then  sometimes  he  scrapes  away 
loose,  moist  particles  that  cover  the  surface  of  the  wood. 
These  particles  are  the  inside  layer  of  cambium.     Perhaps 

^  Sach  an  examination  can  be  made  most  easily  in  the  spring  when  sap  is 
starting. 


STEMS 


177 


he  has  been  unlucky  enough  to  split  the  cylinder  of  bark; 
if  he  looks  at  the  inside  face  of  it,  he  will  see  other  moist 
particles.     These  are  the  outside  cambium  layer. 

Bordering  each  layer  of  cambium,  many  of  the  cells 
are  arranged  in  long 
strings,  or  pipes,  much 
as  our  blood  vessels  are. 
Through  these  pipes  the 
sap  of  the  plant  circu- 
lates, rising  from  the 
roots  to  the  branches 
through  the  outer  wood, 
and  returning  to  the 
roots  in  the  inner  bark.^ 

(3)  ITie  wood  of  the 
stem  supplies  strength 
and  firmness  to  the  tree, 
as  bones  do  to  animal 
bodies.  In  an  old  tree 
the  heart  or  center  wood 
is  merely  a  mass  of  dead 
cells,  and  serves  no  use 
except  to  give  strength. 
But  the  sap  wood,  or 
that  nearest  the  cam- 
bium, in  addition  to 
affording  stiffness  to  the 
tree  and  to  providing 
pipes  for  the  rise  of  sap, 
serves  as  a  storehouse  where  the  sap  may  store  surplus 
food  for  the  next  season's  growth.     Each  year  a  layer  of 


Buds  in  the  Axils  of  Leaves. 
Branch  of  a  cherry  tree  in  July. 


1 A  stem  of  any  rapidly  growing  plant  placed  in  red  ink  will  show  in  a  most 
striking  manner  in  what  part  of  the  stem  the  sap  rises,  and  the  rate  at  which 
it  moves. 


178 


MORE  ABOUT  STARTING   NEW  PLANTS 


light  wood  in  the  spring,  and  usually  of  darker  wood  in 
the  summer  and  fall,  is  formed  by  the  cambium,  so  that 
the  age  of  a  tree  can  easily  be  determined,  when  cut 
down,  by  counting  these  pairs  of  rings. 

b.  The  stem  of  the  cornstalk  consists  of  a  series  of  nodes, 
or  swellings,  which  are  separated  by  internodes.  Each 
internode  is  made  up  of  a  hard  outer  rind,  or  bark,  and  a 
soft  interior  structure  composed  of  numerous  hollow  fibers 

and  pith.  The  fibers 
are  thread-like  and  are 
embedded  separately  in 
the  pith.  They  corre- 
spond rather  closely  to 
our  blood  vessels,  in 
that  they  are  the  bearers 
of  the  sap  of  the  plant. 
They  run  upward  in 
each  internode,  leaving 
the  stem  at  the  nodes  to 
enter  the  leaves. 

126.  Boots  have  much 
the  same  structure  as 
stems.  They  are  less 
firm,  however,  and  they 
have  one  important  feature  that  stems  do  not  have.  This 
is  the  growth  of  hair  that  densely  clothes  new  roots. 

These  hairs  are  each  about  a  fourth  of  an  inch  long  and 
as  fine  as  the  threads  of  a  spider  web.  They  grow  out  of 
surface  cells  on  the  roots.  They  are  very  delicate,  and  are 
easily  destroyed.  Without  them  a  plant  cannot  grow,  for 
it  is  through  them  that  food  enters  the  plant  in  solution 
in  the  soil  water.  In  transplanting  plants,  special  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  pull  off  or  destroy  too  many  of  these 
root  hairs. 


Breathing  Pores  of  a  Leaf. 

The  three  dark  spots  are  open  breathing 
pores. 


CUTTINGS  179 

127.  Buds.  —  If  we  observe  buds  on  a  shrub  or  orchard 
tree  from  time  to  time  in  the  early  spring,  we  notice  that 
some  buds  grow  into  shoots  that  bear  leaves  only ;  others, 
into  shorter  shoots  that  bear  both  leaves  and  flowers ;  and 
some  into  still  shorter  shoots  that  produce  only  flowers. 
Accordingly,  we  speak  of  three  kinds  of  buds,  —  leaf  buds, 
mixed  buds,  and  flower  buds. 

Tiie  buds  of  trees  and  shrubs  are  formed  during  sum- 
mer and  fall,  and  must  be  protected  from  freezing  during 
the  winter.  This  protection  is  afforded  largely  by  a  cov- 
ering of  scales,  cemented  together  by  a  kind  of  wax. 

128.  The  leaf  is  the  factory  of  the  plant.  In  it  are 
manufactured  its  starch,  protein,  and  oil.  The  framework 
of  the  leaf  is  largely  a  collection  of  veins,  which  branch 
more  and  more  on  entering  the  blade  or  flat  part  of  the 
leaf.  These  veins  give  stiffness  to  the  leaf,  and  distribute 
the  solids  in  solution.  77ie  tiny  openings  in  the  skin  of 
the  leaf  (mainly  on  its  under  side)  are  its  breathing 
pores.  They  are  about  one  tenth  as  wide  as  the  thickness 
of  this  paper.  It  has  been  estimated  that  there  are  about 
13,000,000  of  these  breathing  pores  in  a  sunflower  leaf. 

III.     METHODS   OF   NON-SEXUAL   PROPAGATION 

We  have  described  briefly  stem,  root,  bud,  and  leaf,  because  these 
parts,  one  or  more,  are  used  in  propagating  some  plants  asexually. 
Next  we  will  consider  the  Jive  chief  ways  in  which  these  parts  are  used 
for  this  purpose :  (1)  by  cuttings ;  (2)  by  using  certain  modifica- 
tions of  the  stem  which,  in  some  plants,  are  especially  suited  for  this 
purpose ;  (3)  by  layering ;  (4)  by  grafting ;  and  (5)  by  budding. 

129.  Cuttings  are  detached  parts  of  a  plant's  body,  A 
piece  of  a  stem,  or  of  a  root,  or  of  a  leaf  of  some  plants 
may  be  placed  in  the  soil  in  such  a  manner  as  to  develop 
roots  at  one  end.  Roses,  grapes,  currants,  gooseberries, 
and  ornamental  shrubs  are  commonly  propagated  in  this 


180 


MORE  ABOUT  STARTING  NEW  PLANTS 


manner.  Pieces  from  such  plants  form  hardwood  cut- 
tings, as  distinguished  from  the  green  cuttings  of  "  soft " 
plants  like  the  geranium  and  begonia. 

Roses  are  among  the 
easiest  plants  to  propa- 
gate. In  early  fall,  cut 
off  a  part  of  a  rose  stem 
about  six  inches  long, 
allowing  a  leaf  or  two 
to  remain  on  the  cut- 
ting. The  cutting 
should  be  brittle  enough 
to  snap  off  if  bent 
quickly,  and  so  the  most 
rapidly  growing  shoots 
are  not  suitable.  Place 
about  one  third  of  the 
cutting  in  the  ground, 
which  must  then  be 
'firmly  pressed  about  it. 
Cover  the  cutting  with 
a  glass  jar  to  prevent 
excessive  evaporation. 
Roots  should  appear  in 
a  few  weeks,  and  by 
spring  the  young  rose 
stalk  is  ready  for  trans- 
planting. 

The  stems  of  grapes, 
currants,  and  gooseber- 
ries are  also  cut  about  six  inches  long,  and  each  should 
have  at  least  one  eye  or  bud  above  the  ground  when  planted, 
and  at  least  one  in  the  soil. 

Cuttings  of  ornamental  shrubs,  like  dogwoods  and  mock 


Geranium  Cutting. 
Note  the  two  roots  just  starting. 


CUTTINGS 


181 


oranges,  a,re  usually  made  in  early  fall.  Healthy,  vigor- 
ous branches  are  cut  into  pieces  with  two  or  three  eyes  or 
nodes  apiece.  These  slips  may  be  tied  together,  some 
twenty-five  in  a  bundle,  and  kept  in  a  cool  place  through 
the  winter,  to  be  started  in  the  field  in  the  spring  when- 
ever the  soil  and  weather  are  favorable.  Or  they  may  be 
planted  at  once  in  the  fall,  in  moist  sand,  and  kept  warm 
by  decaying  compost.  The  temperature  should  not  rise 
above  80°  F.  The  sand 
must  be  kept  thoroughly 
moistened,  but  not  wet, 
and  must  be  well  pressed 
down  around  the  cut- 
tings. After  they  have 
taken  root  they  should 
be  transplanted  to  small 
pots,  and  then  should 
be  partly  buried  in  sand. 
As  soon  as  the  pots  are 
filled  with  the  roots, 
larger  pots  must  be  pro- 
vided. 

Green,  leaf-bearing 
cuttings  —  from  the  ge- 
ranium, for  instance  — 
are  propagated  in  essentially  the  same  manner.  The 
foliage  should  be  trimmed  off  before  planting,  to  retard 
evaporation. 

Root  cuttings  made  from  the  plum,  blackberry,  and  red 
raspberry  are  given  much  the  same  treatment  as  that  just 
described  for  ornamental  shrubs.  The  temperature  of  the 
bed  of  cuttings  must  be  kept  down  until  towards  spring. 
Sweet  potatoes  are  roots,  and  are  occasionally  cut  into 
pieces  for  planting.     Or  they  may  be  started  in  hotbeds; 


Rose  Cuttings. 

The  one  on  the  left  has  already  sent 
out  rootlets ;  that  on  the  right  has  not 
been  planted. 


182  MOBE  ABOUT  STABTINO  NEW  PLANTS 

then  the  shoots  which  come  up  may  be  pulled  off  and 
planted. 

With  a  few  common  plants,  notably  the  begonia,  only  a 
portion  of  leaf  may  be  used  for  a  cutting.  Perhaps  one  half 
of  the  leaf  is  first  removed,  the  remainder  is  then  placed  in 
moist  sand,  its  stem  being  partly  embedded.  The  leaf 
should  not  be  allowed  to  dry  up.  Roots  should  soon  start, 
and  after  they  have  made  a  good  growth,  the  cutting  may 
be  transplanted. 

Tubers,  like  potatoes  and  artichokes,  are  stems,  although 
they  grow  underground.  The  "  eyes  "  are  the  buds  on 
these  stems.  In  reference  to  potato  cuttings,  Professor 
Fraser  of  Cornell  says  : 

Eiirly  varieties  do  not  do  as  well  when  cut;  and  varieties  with 
white  flowers  seem  to  be  softer  in  texture  and  more  liable  to  failure,  if 
cut,  than  those  with  purple  or  colored  blossoms.  Some  varieties  can- 
not be  cut  with  profit,  owing  to  lack  of  bud-producing  eyes. 

The  labor  of  cutting  is  often  greater  than  the  cost  of  extra  seed. 
When  seed  is  expensive,  as  when  a  variety  is  new,  it  is  wise  to  cut  as 
far  as  possible  to  secure  the  largest  possible  yield  in  the  least  time, 
but  this  course  must  be  followed  by  selection,  or  rapid  deterioration 
of  the  variety  will  result.  A  potato  cut  into  single  eyepieces,  and 
each  piece  planted  in  a  hill,  would  give  a  greater  yield  than  it  would 
had.  it  been  planted  whole. 

130.  Modified  Steins.  —  In  the  preceding  paragraph  the 
potato  tuber  was  called  a  stem.  The  plant  modifies  its 
stem  into  this  form  in  order  to  store  food  and  grow  plasm 
for  reproduction.  The  farmer  meets  many  other  peculiar 
stems  that  have  also  been  modified  for  the  same  purposes. 

a.  Bulbs  are  scaly  and  fleshy  stems.  Certain  common 
members  of  the  lily  family,  including  the  onion,  are  propa- 
gated by  bulbs. 

b.  Oorms  are  solid  bulbs.  The  gladiolus  is  grown  from 
corms. 


MODIFIED   STEMS 


183 


c.   Rootstocks  are  also  underground  stems.     Many  grasses 
produce   branches    that 


Stolons  of  WhIte  Clover. 
A  leaf  appears  at  each  node. 


burrow  into  the  ground. 

These    branches     show 

regularly  arranged 

nodes    and    internodes. 

The     leaves     of     these 

underground     branches 

have    been    reduced    to 

whitish   scales  or   have 

entirely       disappeared. 

Many  plants  keep  alive 

through      the      winter 

through  their  rootstocks.     The  part  of  the  plant  above 

the  ground  is  killed;  but  the  underground  stem  remains 

alive  because  of  the 
protection  afforded  by 
the  ground.  In  the 
spring,  a  shoot,  or  new 
plant,  may  be  sent  up 
from  any  of  the  nodes. 
This  is  why  the  farmer 
may  have  a  permanent 
pasture  without  replant- 
ing, and  why  he  is 
troubled  by  quack  grass 
and  Canada  thistles. 

d.  Stolons  are  creep- 
ing stems,  like  those  of 
the  strawberry,  dew- 
berry, and  currant. 
After  creeping  on  the 
ground  for  a  few  inches 

or  a  few  feet,  a  stolon  bends  over,  strikes  root  at  the  tip. 


Strawberry  Runners. 

Four  runners  have  started  from  the 

plant  at  the  top. 


184 


MORE  ABOUT  STARTING  NEW  PLANTS 


and  develops  a  cluster  of  leaves.  From  this  new  plant, 
the  main  stem  continues  to  creep  further  and  again  strikes 
root,  and  so  on. 

a.  Suckers  are  vigorous  branches  that  spring  up  from 
roots  or  from  stems  near  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Plums, 
white  poplars,  and  lilacs  form  suckers  freely.  The  prop- 
agator cuts  off  the  root 
connection,  and  trans- 
plants the  sucker  to 
start  a  new  plant. 

131.  Layering  is  an- 
other kind  of  propaga- 
tion by  stems.  Certain 
plants,  like  the  black 
raspberry,  can  be  made 
to  take  root  at  the  tip 
of  the  stem  if  the  stem 
is  bent  over  and  the  tip 
covered  with  moist  soil. 
This  is  layering.  Wlien 
the  new  roots  are  of  fair 
size,  the  connection  between  the  old  plant  and  its  offspring 
is  cut,  and  the  young  plant  may  be  transplanted. 

132.  Orafting  is  the  art  of  uniting  parts  of  two  different 
plants.  The  part  to  be  propagated  is  called  the  scion,  and 
the  part  of  the  other  plant  to  which  the  scion  is  to  be 
united  is  known  as  the  stock.  The  union  is  effected  by  the 
rapidly  multiplying  cells  of  the  cambiums  of  scion  and 
stock.  These  cells  must  be  kept  moist  in  order  to  multiply. 
There  are  two  common  kinds  of  grafting,  cleft  grafting 
and  tongue  grafting. 

a.  Cleft  grafting  is  performed  usually  on  limbs  about 
the  thickness  of  a  man's  wrist.  From  the  stock  a  limb  is 
sawed  off  smoothly,  and  the  stump  is  split  with  a  knife  or 


Cleft  Grafting. 


BUDDING 


185 


chisel.  From  the  other  plant  two  scions,  a  few  inches 
long,  each  bearing  a  bud  or  two,  are  cut  at  the  base  to  a 
wedge  shape.  These  scions  are  now  inserted  in  the  cleft, 
one  at  each  side,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  bring  the  cambium 
layer  of  each  in  contact  with  that  of  the  stock.  To  insure 
this  contact  it  is  best  to  spread  the  scions  slightly.  Graft- 
ing wax  is  then  worked  over  all  the  cut  surface.  This 
wax  prevents  the  evaporation  of  moisture  from  the  growing 
cells  and  also  helps  to  hold  the 
scions  in  place. 

b.  Tongue  grafting  or  whip 
grafting  is  a  more  difficult  opera- 
tion. A  scion  and  a  stock  must 
each  be  about  as  thick  as  a  pencil, 
and  from  two  to  four  inches  long. 
A  slanting  cut  is  made  at  one 
end  of  each.  This  cut  end  is 
then  split  down  a  short  distance 
with  a  knife.  The  two  split 
ends  are  now  fitted  into  each 
other  in  such  a  way  as  to  cause 
their  cambiums  to  meet  at  the 
surface.  The  scion  and  stock 
are  usually  held  in  place  by  a 
waxed  cord. 

Apple  trees  are  started  in  this  manner.  The  seedlings 
at  the  end  of  the  first  season  are  dug  up,  and  their  roots 
are  cut  into  pieces  for  stocks.  A  section  of  a  one-year-old 
twig  from  a  tree  of  the  desired  variety  furnishes  the  scion. 
They  are  then  buried  in  sand  and  placed  in  a  cool  cellar 
until  spring.  The  plant  that  grows  from  this  union  will 
resemble  the  scion  plant. 

133.  Budding  is  a  form  of  grafting.  A  T-shaped  cut  is 
made  in  the  stock,  and  a  bud  from  a  desired  variety  is 


Tongue  Grafting. 


186 


MORE  ABOUT  STARTING  NEW  PLANTS 


inserted  beneath  the  bark  and  is  held  in  place  by  raffia  or 
occasionally  by  a  common  string. 

Peaches  are  usually  propagated  by  budding.  Peach 
stones  are  allowed  to  freeze  during  the  winter.  In  the 
spring  they  are  planted,  and  before  winter  the  shoots  are 
ready  to  use.  A  bud  is  inserted  upon  each  shoot  near  the 
ground;  and  after  it  is  well  started,  the  shoot  above  the 


Budding. 
Four  stages  of  the  operation  are  shown  from  left  to  right. 

bud  is  cut  off.     Other  stone  fruits,  like  cherries  and  plums, 
are  propagated  in  a  similar  way. 

134.  Stock  and  Scion.  —  In  all  forms  of  grafting,  includ- 
ing budding,  the  scion  is  really  a  transplanted  plant.  The 
new  growth,  above  the  graft,  resembles  the  scion  plant. ^ 
The  stock  does  little  except  to  furnish  nourishment  to  the 


^If  branches  are  allowed  on  the  stock  plant  beloio  the  graft,  those  branches 
will  resemble  the  original  stock.  An  apple  tree  may  be  so  grafted  as  to  bear 
several  different  kinds  of  fruit  on  different  branches. 


STOCK  AND  SCION 


187 


transplanted  scion.  This  it  does  in  a  remarkable  degree  ; 
so  that  one  purpose  in  grafting  is  to  secure  quicker  growth. 
An  apple  seedling  will  not  bear  much  fruit  until  seven  or 
eight  years  old  ;  but  if  a  scion  from  it  is  early  grafted 
upon  some  mature  root,  fruit  may  be  secured  some  years 
sooner. 

In  certain  cases,  the  stock  exerts  some  other  slight  in- 
fluence on  the  scion.  Sweet-apple  scions  on  crab-apple 
stock  bear  sour  fruit. 
A  quince  stock  will 
dwarf  a  pear  tree  scion  ; 
and  in  like  manner  the 
influence  of  a  dwarf 
apple  tree  will  retard  the 
growth  of  scions  from  a 
large  apple  tree. 

Practical  Questions 

1.  What  is  propagation? 
2.  Explain  the  statement 
that  all  living  things  have  a 
period  of  life.  3.  What  is 
germ  plasm?  4.  Name  all 
the  parts  of  a  plant  that 
may    contain    germ     plasm. 

5.  What  is  the  sexual  method 
of     plant    reproduction? 

6.  How  does  the  asexual 
method  of  reproduction  dif- 
fer from  the  sexual  ?  7.  Describe  a  bean  seed.  8.  What  are  some 
of  the  general  characteristics  of  plants  which  produce  seeds  ?  9.  De- 
scribe the  structure  of  a  grain  of  corn.  10.  Discuss  the  value  of  seed 
testing.  11.  Explain  how  clover  seed  may  be  tested.  12.  In  what 
sense  may  a  seed  be  spoken  of  as  a  plantlet  that  has  fallen  asleep  ? 
13.  How  do  farmers  awaken  seed  to  activity  ?  14.  Define  a  seedling. 
15.  What  is  the  most  critical  period  in  the  life  of  a  plant.  16.  What 
is  the  best  depth  for  planting  wheat  and  tobacco  ?      17.   Describe  the 


Grafting  Exercise. 

The  boys  are  renovating  an  old  apple 
tree  by  cleft  grafting. 


188  MORE  ABOUT  STARTING  NEW  PLANTS 

structure  of  the  pear  stem.  18.  Discuss  the  structure  and  function  of 
the  cambium.  19.  Compare  the  structure  of  a  corn  stem  with  that 
of  a  pear  stem.  20.  Describe  a  root  hair.  21.  Give  the  function 
of  a  leaf.  22.  What  are  cuttings?  23.  What  plants  are  propa- 
gated by  cuttings?  24.  Name  three  different  kinds  of  cuttings. 
25.  For  what  purpose  are  certain  stems  modified  ?  26.  Define  root- 
stock,  tuber,  corm,  bulb,  sucker,  and  stolon.  27.  Explain  the  art  of 
cleft  grafting.  28.  Distinguish  between  a  scion  and  a  stock.  29.  Ex- 
plain how  certain  plants  are  budded.  30.  Discuss  the  effect  of  the 
stock  on  the  scion. 

Home  Exercises 

1.  See  how  many  grafts  you  can  get  to  grow  in  your  home  orchard. 
As  soon  as  you  see  that  you  are  successful,  you  should  make  an  effort 
to  improve  some  plant  by  grafting. 

2.  Test  your  father's  clover,  alfalfa,  and  grass  seed  according  to 
the  method  suggested  on  page  225.  Report  in  school  the  per  cent  of 
germination  for  each  kind. 

3.  After  some  one  has  shown  you  how  to  start  cuttings,  propagate 
several  at  home  and  report. 

4.  How  much  seed  per  acre  does  your  father  use  for  his  different 
crops  ? 

5.  St^rt  a  fruit  tree  from  the  seed  according  to  directions  given  in 
the  text. 

Suggestions 

1.  Demonstrate  the  propagation  of  a  rose  cutting.  A  school  gar- 
den is  convenient  for  this  purpose. 

2.  The  mechanical  side  of  budding  and  grafting  should  be  demon- 
strated by  the  teacher  on  material  brought  to  the  classroom.  Each 
pupil  should  then  be  given  some  practice  and  be  required  to  insert  a 
bud  and  make  a  graft.  The  details  of  all  the  points  should  be  ex- 
plained from  this  material.  After  a  little  skill  has  been  acquired 
thus,  real  work  should  be  attempted  on  the  outside  or  at  home.  The 
pupils  should  be  graded  on  the  number  of  successful  operations  per- 
formed. 

8.  Beans  and  corn  should  be  soaked  for  a  few  hours,  and  their 
parts  then  dissected,  drawn,  and  labeled. 

4.  Procuresome  small  seed  like  alfalfaand  clover.  Determine  the  per 
cent  of  germination.    If  no  balance  is  available,  give  each  pupil  a 


REFERENCES  189 

thimbleful  of  seed  and  ask  him  to  separate  the  seed  and  the  dirt  into 
piles.     In  a  rough  way  the  per  cent  of  dirt  may  thus  be  estimated. 

.5.  Determine  the  needs  of  a  growing  plant,  —  air,  moisture,  heat, 
and  light,  —  by  simple  experiments  such  as  those  suggested  in  the 
text. 

6.  In  a  large  glass  jar  containing  soil,  plant  different  seeds  at  differ- 
ent depths.  Place  the  seeds  against  the  glass  in  order  that  their 
attempts  to  rise  to  the  surface  may  be  noted.  This  experiment  is  very 
simple  and  instructive. 

7.  Ascertain,  if  possible,  how  the  farmers  of  the  neighborhood 
start  their  plants,  and  where  they  obtain  their  seed. 

References 

Botanies. 

Nursery  Book.     Bailey. 

Pruning  Book.     Bailey. 

Systematic  Pomology.     Waugh. 

Farmers'  Bulletins.     Washington,  D.  C. 

113.   The  Apple  and  How  to  Grow  It. 

134.    Tree  Planting  on  Rural  School  Grounds. 

154.    The  Home  Fruit  Garden  :  Preparation  and  Care. 

157.    The  Propagation  of  Plants. 

181.   Pruning. 

213.   Raspberries. 

428.   Testing  Farm  Seeds  in  the  Home  and  in  the  Rural  School. 


CHAPTER   XIV 

MAKING  BETTER  PLANTS 


It  has  been  clearly  demonstrated  that  it  is  possible  to  increase  the 
product  per  acre  of  tJie  average  farm  up  to  J^O  per  cent  simply  by 
the  use  of  improved  strains  of  seed  developed  on  the  farm  itself,  at 
the  cost  of  a  little  well-directed  effort  on  the  part  of  the  farmer. 

—  Tract. 

I.    THE  SCIENCE  OF  PLANT  BREEDING 

135.  A  New  Science.  —  About  fifty  years  ago  a  new 
science  was  born.  It  is  called  the  science  of  plant  breed- 
ing. Already  it  has  created  many  new,  highly  desirable 
plants,  and  improved  many  other  old  plants  in  a  most 
astonishing  degree.  It  has  established  the  principles  of 
an  art  that  have  enabled  an  expert  to  produce  a  seedless 
orange ;  to  introduce  better  flavors  into  many  fruits ;  to 
create  plums  of  unusual  size  and  texture  ;  to  grow  a 
blackberry  plant  that  bears  a  bushel  or  more  of  berries  ; 
to  produce  a  peach-plum  that  hides  the  twigs  with  its 
fruit  ;  to  increase  the  size  of  many  cultivated  roots  and 
tubers  and  at  the  same  time  to  decrease  the  amount  of 
woody  fiber  in  them;  to  make  potatoes,  prunes,  almonds, 
lettuce,  and  apricots  of  larger  size  and  better  quality  than 
were  known  before  ;  and  to  improve  many  other  fruits, 
vegetables,  flowers,  and  trees. 

136.  The  leading  plant  breeder  in  the  world  is  Luther 
Burbank,  who  now  lives  at  Santa  Rosa  in  California.  He 
was  born  in  Massachusetts,  March  7,  1849.  As  a  boy  he 
was  a  great  reader  of  good  books  and  a  close  observer  of 

190 


BREEDING  PLANTS 


191 


nature.  This  habit  of  observation  gave  him  passionate 
delight,  and  finally  started  him,  while  he  was  yet  a  youth, 
upon  his  great  work. 

While  hoeing  in  his  potato  patch  one  day,  he  noticed  an 
unusually  interesting  seed  ball  on  a  remarkably  vigorous 
potato  vine.  This  hill  of  potatoes  he  guarded  carefully, 
and  when  the  seed  was 
ripe,  he  gathered  it. 
From  this  seed  he  pro- 
duced the  celebrated 
"  Burbank  "  potato.  It 
is  said  that  a  local  seeds- 
man paid  the  young  man 
•S150  for  the  right  to  use 
this  discovery.  High 
authorities  declare  that 
the  dissemination  of  this 
variety  of  potato  has 
enriched  the  farmers  of 
America  to  the  extent 
of  $20,000,000. 

Better  still,  it  showed 
how  to  go  to  work  to 
obtain  other  varieties, 
and  since  that  time  there 
have  been  developed,  from  promising  seed  balls,  several 
kinds  of  potatoes  even  more  valuable  than  the  Burbank. 
Best  of  all,  the  creation  of  the  Burbank  potato  started 
young  Burbank  upon  a  new  career  that  has  benefited  the 
world  beyond  all  computation.  On  his  extensive  experi- 
ment grounds  in  California  he  has  worked  miracles  in  plant 
creation  and  improvement.  All  the  marvelous  plant 
work  mentioned  in  the  first  paragraph  of  this  chapter  was 
done  there  by  him  and  his  little  army  of  trained  assistants. 


Luther  Burbank. 


192  MAKING  BETTER  PLANTS 

With  good  reason  Luther  Burbank  is  called  "  The  Plant 
Wizard  of  the  West." 

137.  The  plant  breeder  produces  new  kinds  of  plants  and 
improves  old  ones,  by  crosses.  He  does  not  leave  Nature 
to  produce  crosses  unaided.  He  experiments  in  new 
crosses,  such  as  Nature,  left  to  herself,  would  perhaps 
never  secure.  The  genius  of  the  breeder  is  shown  mainly 
in  selecting  the  plants  to  cross. 

After  the  selection  has  been  made  for  any  one  experi- 
ment, the  work  itself  is  relatively  simple.  It  is  merely 
a  matter  of  cross-pollinizing  the  two  plants  and  listing  the 
results. 

138.  In  cross-poUination  the  breeder  is  concerned  mainly 
with  stamens  and  pistils.  He  must  take  tlie  pollen  from 
one  plant  to  fertilize  the  pistil  of  the  other,  —  and  he  must 
see  to  it  that  that  pistil  is  not  fertilized  in  any  other  way^ 
or  he  would  not  know  what  factors  produced  the  result 
which  he  finally  obtains. 

First  the  plant  whose  pistil  is  to  be  fertilized  is  stripped 
of  most  of  its  flower  buds,  so  that  the  remaining  ones  may 
develop  vigorously.  The  remaining  blossoms  are  de- 
prived of  their  stamens,  by  the  use  of  fine  scissors.  This 
is  done  before  the  blossom  fully  opens,  so  as  to  make 
sure  that  the  anther  shall  not  have  already  shed  pollen 
on  the  pistil.  Great  care  is  taken,  of  course,  not  to  injure 
the  pistil  when  cutting  away  the  stamens  ;  but  the  calyx 
and  corolla  may  be  cut  away  also  if  they  are  in  the 
way.  The  remaining  pistil  is  at  once  covered  with  a 
small  paper  bag,  tied  on  the  flower  stalk,  so  that  neither 
bees  nor  breezes  may  deposit  undesired  pollen  there. 
Insects,  to  be  sure,  are  not  likely  to  visit  a  mutilated 
flower  ;  but  it  is  necessary  to  be  absolutely  sure,  or  the 
experiment  is  worth  little. 

The  breeder  next  takes  pollen  from  the  stamen  of  the 


TESTING   THE  RESULT 


193 


other  plant  selected,  and  applies  it  to  the  prepared  pistil 
with  his  finger  or  with  a  brush.  Usually  he  first  moistens 
the  stigma  slightly,  to  make  the  pollen  adhere  to  it  better. 
139.  Testing  the  Result.  —  After  all  this  work,  the  pollen 
may  not  fertilize  the  ovules,  and  no  seed  may  be  formed. 
That  is,  these  two  plants  may  refuse  to  breed  together. 
In  a  vast  number  of  experiments  this  is  the  case. 


Variation  in  Plant  Breeding. 
Note  the  differences  in  size  and  shape  among  these  kernels  of  corn. 

If  the  ovules  are  fertilized,  seed  is  formed,  and  this 
seed  will  produce  a  plant  different  from  its  parents.  But 
until  this  new  plant  matures,  it  is  impossible  to  tell 
whether  the  plant  is  an  improvement  or  not.  From  thou- 
sands of  crosses  the  breeder  selects  only  a  few  to  preserve. 

In  some  cases  it  takes  years  before  the  breeder  can  tell 
whether  his  new  cross  is  worth  preserving.  If  he  has 
been  working  with  apples,  he  must  wait  until  the  new 
plant  produces  fruit;  and  then  if  the  result  is  disappoint- 
ing, he  must  begin  over  again.  It  is  fortunate,  therefore, 
that  he  can  hasten  results  with  such  plants  by  grafting. 
If  a  sprout  for  the  new  apple  tree,  when  a  year  old,  is 


194  MAKING  BETTER  PLANTS 

grafted  upon  an  old  tree  of  almost  any  sort,  the  new 
variety  of  fruit  may  be  secured  and  tested  in  the  fourth 
year  from  the  time  the  experiment  began,  while  if  the 
seedling  is  left  to  develop  by  itself,  many  more  years  will 
be  required.  At  the  best,  it  is  plain  that  one  human  life 
is  hardly  long  enough  for  complete  experiments  upon  the 
longest  lived  plants.  Plant  breeding  is  still  an  infant 
science;  and  even  more  wonderful  results  are  to  be  looked 
for  from  it  in  the  future  than  those  so  far  secured. 

II.    SOME   RESULTS  ALREADY    SECURED 

140.  Com,  a  leading  crop  in  the  United  States,  has  been 
much  improved  both  in  yield  and  in  quality. 

a.  Increasing  the  yield.  The  average  yield  of  corn  in 
the  United  States  is  still  less  than  30  bushels  to  the  acre. 
In  Corn  Club  work,  however,  Walter  Lee  Dunson  of  Ala- 
bama during  the  summer  of  1913  grew  232.7  bushels  of 
corn  on  his  acre  of  ground,  at  a  cost  of  19.9  cents  a  bushel. 
Jerry  Moore,  another  southern  boy,  is  said  to  have  raised 
228.7  bushels  of  corn  on  his  acre.  These  results  were 
secured  partly  by  superior  tillage,  partly  by  selecting 
superior  seed.  The  latter  factor  is  the  only  one  of  the 
two  which  has  a  bearing  upon  plant  breeding. 

In  the  average  field  of  corn  there  are  many  stalks  with 
only  poor  ears  or  with  no  ear  whatever.  These  barren 
stalks  usually  produce  an  unusual  abundance  of  pollen. 
Their  reproductive  energy  goes  wholly  to  this.  Since  the 
pollen  grains  from  the  barren  stalks  are  more  numerous 
relatively  than  those  from  productive  ones,  the  tendency 
to  barrenness  may  increase.  A  corn  breeder  counteracts 
this  tendency  by  removing  the  tassels  of  the  barren  stalks 
before  their  pollen  can  reach  the  silk  of  the  productive 
stalks.  This  operation  does  more  than  counteract  the 
evil  tendency:  it  positively  strengthens  the  opposite  good 


CORN 


195 


tendency,  because  the  ears  are  then  fertilized  only  by 
pollen  from  stalks  more  productive  than  the  average.  The 
seed  from  a  crop  that  has  been  treated  in  this  way  will  be, 
not  only  not  worse,  but  decidedly  better,  than  the  seed  that 
produced  that  crop.  Every  farmer  who  saves  his  own 
corn  seed  —  as  all  corn  raisers 
should  do  —  ought  to  be  a 
breeder  of  corn  at  least  as  far 
as  concerns  this  simple  and 
profitable  operation  upon  his 
seed  plot. 

There  are  other  still  more 
important  methods  of  breed- 
ing corn  for  increased  produc- 
tion. These  will  be  discussed 
in  Chapter  XIX.  Some  of 
them,  too,  are  suitable  for 
practice  on  any  ordinary  farm 
when  corn  is  raised  at  all, 
and  their  more  general  adoption  would  add  enormously  to 
our  national  wealth.  If  our  average  corn  yield  on  the 
present  acreage  were  increased  only  from  40  bushels  to  50 
bushels,  the  increase  would  be  worth  half  a  billion  dollars 
each  year.  This  would  pay  all  the  expenses  of  our  school 
system,  from  the  kindergarten  to  the  university. 

b.    Improvement  in  quality.     An  average  bushel  of  corn, 
weighing  56  pounds,  contains  approximately 
36  pounds  of  starch 

7  pounds  of  gluten 

5  pounds  of  bran 

4  pounds  of  germ 

4  pounds  of  worthless  matter  including  water. 
Glucose  manufacturers  desire  corn  with  high  oil  value. 
Feeders  of  bacon  hojjs  demand  corn  with  low  oil  value. 


Corn  Bagged. 
To  keep  off  inferior  pollen. 


196 


MAKING  BETTER  PLANTS 


About  40  per  cent  of  the  average  corn  germ  is  oil.  But 
at  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station,  two  new  kinds  of  corn 
have  been  bred:  the  germ  of  one  contains  about  20  per 
cent,  and  that  of  the  other  about  80  per  cent  of  oil.  Both 
the  glucose  and  the  bacon  men,  therefore,  have  now  a 
grade  of  corn  that  suits  their  needs  much  better  than  the 
older  kinds  did. 

In  a  similar  manner  the  other  ingredients  of  corn  have 
been  increased  or  diminished  by  the  breeder  according  to 


Prize  Corn. 
Can  you  find  any  imperfection  in  any  of  these  ears  ? 

the  demands  of  the  market.  The  protein  which  is  found 
mainly  in  the  gluten  and  the  germ  has  been  increased  in 
certain  varieties  from  the  old  average  of  about  10  per  cent 
to  14.26  per  cent;  while  in  other  varieties  it  has  been 
decreased  to  8.60  per  cent.  So,  too,  varieties  have  been 
produced  that  have  particularly  hard,  bright,  shapely  ker- 
nels. Other  new  varieties  excel  in  the  shape  and  size  of 
the  ear.  Others  have  special  power  to  resist  disease  or 
drought,  or  frost. 

Breeding  for  this  last  quality  is  especially  important. 
It  has  already  widened  the  com  belt  by  several  degrees  of 


WHEAT 


197 


latitude,  and  is  still  pushing  its  northern  limit  farther  and 
farther  north.  This,  in  effect,  adds  a  new  food  grain  to  a 
large  part  of  the  world. 


141.  Tomatoes,  only  a 
few  generations  ago, 
were  known  as  "love- 
apples  "  and  were  grown 
only  as  curiosities.  The 
fruit  was  unfit  to  eat : 
it  was  tasteless,  small, 
and  full  of  bitter  seeds. 
By  cross-pollination  and 
selection,  however,  the 
fruit  has  been  increased 
in  size,  given  a  finer 
texture,  flavor,  and  color, 
and  made  to  mature 
early  or  late,  so  as  to 
supply  the  market 
through  a  long  season. 

142.  Wheat  has  been 
improved  in  the  last 
twenty-five  years  more 
than  during  the  previous 
four  thousand.  Many 
new  varieties  of  wheat 
have  been  produced  by  scientific  breeding.  These  new 
varieties,  compared  with  the  old  ones,  have  a  greater 
power  to  resist  rust  and  drought,  produce  a  larger 
yield  per  acre,  and  contain  a  higher  per  cent  of  gluten 
or  protein.  No  one  variety  combines  all  these  advan- 
tages, to  be  sure ;  but  each  improved  variety  is  suited  to 
some  locality  or  to  some  demand  of  the  market.  And 
scientists  are  trying  to  improve  wheat  still  more. 


Tomatoes. 


198  MAKING  BETTER  PLANTS 

III.    HEREDITY    AND  VARIATION:    AND    THEIR    PLACE 
IN   PLANT  BREEDING 

143.  Nature,  too,  breeds  new  varieties  of  plants,  and  she  has 
been  in  the  business  much  longer  than  man  has.  For 
countless  centuries  she  has  been  developing  the  myriad 
kinds  of  plants  that  we  know  from  a  smaller  number  of 
simpler  forms.  Doubtless  even  more  myriads  were  started, 
but  failed  to  survive. 

144.  Nature  and  the  Human  Plant  Breeder.  —  Nature  is  still 
at  work  in  the  same  way ;  and  still,  too,  when  she  pro- 
duces a  plant  fit  to  become  the  mother  of  a  new  variety, 
it  often  dies  out  without  doing  so,  or  loses  its  best  quali- 
ties by  unfortunate  crosses.  The  human  plant  breeder, 
and  indeed  the  ordinary  farmer,  sometimes  stumbles  upon 
a  new  sort  of  plant  that  Nature  has  just  produced  unaided. 
If  the  plant  is  useful,  the  man's  part  is  merely  to  protect  it 
and  to  propagate  a  new  race  of  plants  from  it. 

This  is  what  the  youthful  Burbank  did  with  his  famous 
potato.  He  had  some  other  special  merit  in  that  case, 
however.  He  noticed  a  possibility  of  merit  when  a  less 
observant  man  would  have  seen  none  at  all ;  and  he  took 
the  trouble  and  time  to  try  out  the  plant  and  prove  its 
value.  Other  men  have  sometimes  made  like  discoveries 
more  purely  as  a  result  of  chance,  so  far  as  their  own  merit 
is  concerned.  A  famous  instance  of  such  a  discovery  is 
described  in  the  next  paragraph. 

145.  The  Concord  Grape.  —  In  1843  Ephraim  W.  Bull 
planted  in  his  yard  at  Concord,  Massachusetts,  a  few  seeds 
of  the  wild  fox  grape.  The  grape  whose  seeds  he  planted 
was  not  unusually  attractive  to  the  sense  of  taste,  or  sight, 
or  smell.  He  had  no  reason  to  suppose  that  from  these 
seeds  he  would  obtain  a  vine  which  would  bear  any  more 
attractive   grapes.     Indeed,  he  expected  to  secure  only 


SPORTS 


199 


ordinary  wild  grapes.  In  this,  however,  he  was  mistaken. 
The  grapes  on  the  new  vine  were  very  superior  in  size, 
color,  texture,  and  taste  to  those  borne  on  the  parent  vine. 
They  became  famous  rapidly.  The  new  grape  appeared 
in  1849.  Only  four  years  later,  in  the  records  of  the 
Massachusetts  Horticul- 
tural Society,  this  state- 
ment occurs:  "E.  W. 
Bull  exhibited  his  new 
seedling  grape,  which, 
under  the  name  of  Con- 
cord, is  now  so  generally 
cultivated  throughout 
the  country." 

146.  "  Sports.  "— The 
Concord  lias  made  the 
name  of  Ephraim  Bull 
famous.  But  Mr. 
Bull  was  not  a  plant 
breeder.  He  did  not 
experiment,  wisely  or 
unwisely.  Nor  did  he 
deserve  any  special 
credit  for  planting  wild- 
grape  seeds  in  his  garden. 
Many  of  his  neighbors 
had  done  that,  and  so 
have  thousands  of  other  people  before  and  since,  and  the 
vines  that  grew  up  have  been  merely  the  fox  grape. 

By  a  happy  chance  (so  far  as  man's  part  goes)  the  seed 
in  Mr.  Bull's  garden  produced  a  "sport."  A  "sport" 
among  plants  is  a  plant  which,  purely  from  natural  causes, 
departs  widely  from  the  parent  type.  Sports  occur  also 
in  the  animal  world,  and  perhaps  even  more  in  the  human 


Niagara  Grapes. 
A  cross  of  the  Concord  and  the  Cassady. 


200 


MAKING   BETTER   PLANTS 


race.  A  six-lingered  child  is  a  "sport."  So  is  a  giant  or 
a  dwarf.^  The  higher  and  more  complex  the  kind  of  life, 
the  more  likely  it  is,  apparently,  to  produce  "  sports  "  in  its 
offspring. 

147.  Heredity.  — A  "sport"  gives  us  a  shock  of  surprise 
at  first,  because  we  expect  offspring  to  resemble  the  parent 
closely.  The  only  reason  that  most  of  us  have  for  expect- 
ing this  likeness  is  that  offspring  usually  do  resemble  the 
parent.  When  we  wish  to  speak  of  the  force  in  nature 
that  causes  the  offspring  to  tend  to  repeat  the  character 
of  the  parent,  we  call  it  heredity. 

148.  Variation.  —  But  happily  in  all  natural  organisms 
there  is  not  only  this  force  of  heredity,  or  a  tendency  to 

repeat  the  parent,  but 
also  an  opposite  tendency 
which  we  speak  of  as 
"  the  tendency  to  varia- 
tion." If  it  were  not 
for  this  second  force, 
neither  nature  nor  man 
could  much  improve 
either  plants  or  animals. 
149.  These  two  great 
forces,  heredity  and  varia- 
tion, work  together  in  all 
living  organisms.  He- 
redity secures  a  general 
likeness  in  each  variety, 
but  there  is  always  some 
variation.  In  a  corn- 
field, even  if  all  the  seed  came  from  one  plant,  the  stalks 
differ  from  one  another,  and  some  differ  a  good  deal 
from  the  average.     Once  in  a  long  while,  one  stalk  may 


Improved  Blackberry. 


1  Unless  the  dwarfiug  has  been  caused  by  treatment  qfter  birth. 


HEREDITY  AND   VARIATION 


201 


differ  so  far  from  the  average  as  to  deserve  the  name  of  a 
"  sport."  A  certain  race  of  men  have,  let  us  say,  5  feet  and 
8  inches  for  their  average  height.  Of  ten  thousand  men 
of  the  race  not  very  many  have  precisely  that  height,  but 
almost  all  are  near  it,  varying  only  two  or  three  inches 
on  one  side  or  the  other.     A  very  few  individuals  of  the 


Blackberry  Field. 

ten  thousand,  however,  will  probably  be  almost  seven  feet 
high,  and  a  very  few  others  may  be  not  much  over  four 
feet.     These  extreme  individuals  are  "  sports."  ^ 

150.  The  student  should  now  be  able  to  understand 
somewhat  better  the  work  of  the  plant  breeder.  (1)  The 
breeder  studies  the  variations  in  the  offspring  of  a  germ 
plant,  and  tries  to  preserve  and  propagate  the  variations 
that  seem  most  useful  for  man,  —  for  instance,  the  most 
productive  stalk  of  corn  in  a  field.     (2)  He  takes  advan- 


1  There  is  a  like  natural  variation  in  other  qualities.  Among  men,  for  in- 
stance, there  is  a  general  average  of  mental  ability.  Most  men  vary  only  a 
little  from  this  average ;  but  in  a  million  there  will  be  a  few  natural  geniuses 
and  a  few  natural  idiots.    Both  these  classes  are  "  sports." 


202  MAKING  BETTER  PLANTS 

tage,  especially  of  extreme  variations,  or  "  sports,"  if  their 
character  is  promising,  because  here  Nature  has  done 
more  of  his  work  for  him.  (3)  He  experiments  with 
new  crosses  to  secure  types  that  Nature  of  herself  has  not 
produced  —  or  which  at  least  she  has  not  preserved. 

151.  The  Perpetnation  of  a  New  Variety.  —  We  have  just 
mentioned  three  distinct  ways  in  which  the  breeder  secures 
new  kinds  of  plants.  In  all  three,  he  works  with  the 
natural  tendency  to  variation.  But  in  all  three,  too,  in  fixing 
and  perpetuating  the  new  variety  he  relies  upon  the  force 
of  heredity  to  aid  him. 

To  use  this  force,  however,  the  breeder  must  know  a 
little  more  about  it.  At  first  any  one  of  his  new  varieties 
consists  of  very  few  plants,  —  perhaps  of  only  one  chosen 
plant.  Now,  in  all  forms  of  life,  the  offspring  inherits  its 
character  not  merely  from  its  immediate  parents,  hut  aho^ 
through  them,  from  more  distant  ancestors.  Accordingly, 
there  is  a  strong  tendency  in  the  oflfspring  of  the  first  plants 
of  a  new  variety  to  return  ("  revert ")  to  the  average  char- 
acter of  the  older  variety  from  which  the  new  one  was 
developed.  This  tendency  is  strengthened  still  farther, 
in  a  wild  state,  by  crosses  between  the  new  variety  and 
the  old  one.  The  offspring  of  such  crosses,  as  a  rule,  are 
more  like  the  old  variety  than  the  new  one,  because  the 
character  of  the  old  has  been  fixed  longer  and  more  firmly. 

If  the  grape  "  sport "  that  appeared  in  Mr.  Bull's  Concord 
garden  had  appeared  instead  in  the  forest,  it  would  itself 
have  produced  "  Concord  "  grapes ;  but  most  of  the  plants 
from  the  seeds  of  those  grapes  would  probably  have  "  re- 
verted "  to  the  character  of  ordinary  wild  grapes,  and,  in 
time,  at  best  there  would  have  been  merely  a  few  vines  in 
the  neighborhood  with  slightly  better  fruit  than  the  aver- 
age fox  grape.  Mr.  Bull  saved  the  new  variety  by  propa- 
gating  it,  not  by  seeds,  but   by  slips.     In  this  kind  of 


PERPETUATING  A   NEW   VARIETY 


203 


propagation  there  is  little  chance  for  reversion ;  as  we 
have  said  in  Chapter  XII,  the  offspring  resemble  the  im- 
mediate parent  much  more  surely  and  fully  than  in  prop- 
agation by  seeds.  Mr.  Bull  did  not  have  any  part  in 
producing  the  first  Concord,  but  he  did  have  an  essential 
part  in  preserving  and  propagating  it. 

We  are  ready  now  to  see  the  three  different  ways  in  which 
the  plant  breeder  makes  heredity  aid  him  in  propagating  a  new 
plant  that  he  has  produced. 

(1)  He  must  guard  his  new  plant  carefully  against 
cross-fertilization  with  plants  of  the  old  variety  from 
which  it  came.  Every 
corn  breeder  knows  the 
need  of  this  care. 

(2)  He  must  watch 
several  generations  of 
the  new  variety,  —  if  it 
is  propagated  by  seed, 
—  selecting  from  each 
generation,  for  further 
propagation,  only  those 
individuals  that  are  true 
to  the  new  type,  and 
destroying  those  that 
show  a  "reversion"  to 
the  old  type.  This  work, 
too,  is  part  of  the  work 
of  every  corn  breeder, 
and  of  every  farmer  who 
tries  to  improve  his  seed. 
After  a  few  generations 
of  plants,  such  care  is 
less   necessary,  because 


Improved  Crab  Apple. 


204  MAKING   BETTER   PLANTS 

the  new  type  has  become  "fixed."  This  is  because 
offspring,  as  a  rule,  inherit  more  from  the  immediate 
parents  than  from  grandparents,  and  more  from  grand- 
parents than  from  great-grandparents,  and  so  on. 

(3)  If  the  new  plant  can  be  propagated  asexually,  the 
breeder  will  of  course  use  this  method.  One  illustration 
of  its  advantage  has  been  given.  The  propagation  of 
new  kinds  of  apples  offers  another  familiar  illustration. 
New  varieties  are  first  obtained  as  seedlings.  But,  be- 
sides the  time  involved,  the  seeds  from  these  seedlings 
cannot  be  trusted  to  resemble  the  new  type.  They  show 
a  remarkably  strong  tendency  to  variation  as  well  as  to 
reversion.  Now  and  then  a  seed  may  produce  a  valuable 
and  still  newer  variety  ;  but,  to  perpetuate  the  chosen 
one,  the  breeder  propagates  it  by  grafting. 

152.  What  Mendel '  Taught  XTs.  —  Mendel  found  that 
plants  were  made  up  of  what  he  called  unit  characters, 
such  as  height,  color,  and  shape.  Assuming  that  a  young 
plant  had  100  unit  characters,  he  discovered  that  50  came 
from  the  pollen  parent  and  50  from  the  pistil  parent.  He 
found  also  that  in  hybrids,  or  crosses  between  two  different 
but  closely  related  kinds  of  plants,  these  unit  characters 
appear  according  to  a  mathematical  law.  When  he  took 
the  pollen  from  white-flowered  peas  and  placed  it  on  the 
pistil  of  red-flowered  peas,  he  found  the  next  season  that 
the  hybrid  bore  o?ili/  white  flowers.  The  influence  of  the 
red-flowered  parent  was  suppressed  as  far  as  the  color 
unit  of  the  flower  was  concerned.     But  when  he  planted 


1  Mendel,  an  Austrian  monk,  was  bom  in  1822  and  died  in  1884.  His 
simple  experiments  in  the  garden  of  his  cloister,  especially  with  peas,  have 
thrown  a  flood  of  light  on  Nature's  great  principle  of  heredity.  His  scientific 
work  was  not  generally  appreciated  during  his  life-time ;  its  significance  was 
not  then  understood.  In  1900,  however,  his  papers  were  "  rediscovered." 
The  nature  of  his  researches  was  then  made  known  to  the  scientific  world, 
and  Mendel  and  his  great  work  began  to  be  rated  at  their  proper  value. 


PRACTICAL   QUESTIONS  205 

the  seeds  of  this  hybrid,  they  produced  white-flowered 
plants  and  red-flowered  phmts  in  the  proportion  of  3  to  1. 
In  the  future,  the  one  fourth  that  were  red  continued  to 
produce  onl}'^  reds  ;  but  of  the  three  fourths  that  were 
white,  only  one  third  produced  whites  in  succeeding  gen- 
erations. The  remaining  two  thirds  of  the  whites  (or  one 
half  of  all)  were  hybrids  which  behaved  in  following  gen- 
erations precisely  as  the  first  hybrid  did.  There  were  no 
red  and  white  peas.  The  colors  did  not  blend.  So,  too,  in 
crossing  very  long  and  very  short  stemmed  peas,  Mendel 
found  that  the  hybrids  were  longer  than  the  long-stemmed 
parent  ;  but  in  the  next  generation  forms  appeared  that 
were  shorter  than  the  short-stemmed  parent,  and  the 
short  and  long  stems  were  always  in  a  definite  propor- 
tion. Crossing  did  not  blend  the  length  and  shortness 
of  the  parent  plants,  but  it  did  show  how  to  intensify  the 
original  qualities. 

These  experiments  have  had  a  remarkable  influence  on 
recent  methods  of  making  improvements  in  both  plants 
and  animals.  As  soon  as  the  breeder  has  determined 
what  is  a  unit  character  in  the  plants  he  is  working  with, 
he  may  feel  sure  that  crosses  will  not  produce  blends  in 
it,  and  he  will  see  a  possible  way  to  intensify  it. 

Practical  Questions 

1.  What  is  plant  breeding?  2.  What  are  some  of  the  things 
that  plant  breeding  has  accomplished?  3.  Give  a  short  account  of 
Luther  Burbank.  4.  What  part  in  the  making  of  new  plants  do 
the  stamens  and  pistils  play?  5.  How  may  undesirable  pollen  be 
kept  from  a  flower?  6.  What  effect  does  the  removal  of  a  few 
flowers  have  on  those  remaining?  7.  Give  one  way  in  which  a 
breeder  can  increase  the  yield  of  corn  per  acre.  8.  Suppose  there 
is  an  increased  yield  of  corn  in  the  United  States  equal  to  five  bushels 
to  the  acre,  to  what  extent  would  it  enrich  our  farmers?  9.  Give 
the  composition  of  an  average  bushel  of  corn.        10.   Why  is  corn 


206  MAKING  BETTER  PLANTS 

bred  for  quality?  11.  In  what  way  has  the  plant  breeder  improved 
wheat?  12.  Describe  the  work  of  Ephraira  Bull.  13.  Distin- 
guish between  variation  and  heredity.  14.  iixplain  the  results 
that  Mendel  obtained  by  crossing  peas.  15.  What  did  Mendel 
mean  by  a  "  unit  character?" 

Home  Exercises 

1.  The  method  of  plant  breeding  should  first  be  demonstrated  by 
one  who  knows.  The  demonstrator  may  be  the  teacher,  the  county 
agent,  or  a  local  expert  gardener.  Try  out  the  suggestions  given  at 
school  on  your  own  farm  or  on  a  special  plot.  Do  not  stop  with  the 
explanation,  but  put  theory  into  practice.  Take  different  kinds  of 
corn,  truck  crops,  or  orchard  fruits.  The  practice  of  breeding  is  a 
fascinating  art. 

Do  not  attempt  to  cross  everything  and  anything.  Confine  your 
work  first  to  crosses  that  are  known  to  take.  Report  the  results  at 
school. 

2.  Determine  the  name  of  every  breed  or  strain  of  plants  culti- 
vated at  home. 

3.  Go  into  the  field  and  select  the  best  stalks  of  com  or  into  the 
garden  and  pick  out  the  best  vegetables  of  any  kind.  Bring  them 
along  to  school  and  tell  why  you  believe  them  to  be  the  best. 

Suggestions 

Demonstrate  the  following : 

1.  Open  a  flower  bud  and  remove  the  stamens.  Tie  a  small  paper 
bag  over  the  flower  for  a  few  days.  Remove  the  bag  and  tie  a  label 
to  the  stem  of  the  flower.  Note  whether  any  fruit  develops  or  seed 
is  produced  without  pollen.  Large  blossoms,  such  as  those  of  the 
cherry,  apple,  and  pear,  are  suitable  for  this  experiment.  Each  pupil 
can  do  this  work  at  home.  It  should  be  tried  upon  at  least  half  a 
dozen  different  blossoms. 

2.  Repeat  the  first  experiment  without  tying  on  the  bag  and  wait 
for  results. 

3.  Repeat  the  first  experiment  but  add  a  little  pollen  from  the 
stamens  of  another  flower. 

4.  As  the  corn  silk  is  just  emerging  from  the  husks,  tie  a  bag  over 
the  ear  and  silk  for  a  few  days.  Gather  some  pollen  from  another 
variety  of  corn,  and  removing  the  bag,  dust  it  on  the  silk.    Tie  the 


SEFERENCE8  207 

bag  on  the  ear  again  for  a  few  days  longer.  Describe  the  corn  when 
mature,  and  plant  the  grain  the  next  year  to  find  out  the  result  of 
the  cross. 

5.  Try  to  cross-pollinate  an  apple  on  a  peach,  pear,  quince,  or 
cherry.     It  is  possible  for  a  failure  to  be  as  instructive  as  a  success. 

6.  Label  a  few  clusters  of  apple  blossoms.  Count  the  blossoms. 
Later,  count  the  blossoms  that  produce  fruit,  and  determine  the  per 
cent. 

7.  Remove  all  the  blossoms  of  an  apple  cluster  except  one.  Note 
whether  the  fruit  is  better  than  those  borne  by  the  other  clusters. 

Referencks 

New  Creations  in  Plant  Life.     Harwood. 
Plant  Breeding.     Bailey. 
Principles  of  Breeding.     Davenport. 
Plant  Breeding.     De  Vries. 
Cereals  in  America.     T.  F.  Hunt. 
Farmers''  Bulletins.     Washington,  D.  C. 

317.   Increasing  the  Production  of  Corn. 

334.   Plant  Breeding  on  the  Farm. 

342.   Potato  Breeding. 

The  Art  of  Seed  Selection  and  Breeding.     Year  Book  1906. 

Sugar-beet  Seed  Breeding.     Year  Book  1904. 


CHAPTER  XV 

COMMON  DISEASES  OF  OEOPS 


Diseases  desperate  ^rown 

By  desperate  appliance  are  removed, 

Or  not  at  all. 


—  Sbakcspkarx. 


153.  What  Is  a  Plant  Disease  ?  —  Plants  have  to  contend 
not  only  with  excessive  heat  and  cold  and  wet  and  drought, 
but  also,  like  every  living  creature,  with  living  enemies. 
When,  however,  a  young  squash  plant  is  killed  by  a  cut- 
worm, or  when  a  potato  plant  is  injured  by  potato  bugs, 
we  do  not  usually  speak  of  the  plant  as  afflicted  by  disease. 
But  we  do  so  speak  when  the  plant's  enemy  is  some  minute 
form  of  life  that  exists  tvithin  it  or  only  in  connection  with 
it.  A  plant  disease  is  any  weak  or  backward  condition  due  to 
parasitic  plants  like  bacteria  and  fnngi. 

154.  Bacteria. — Just  as  a  man  is  likely  to  be  afflicted 
with  tiny  plants  called  bacteria.,  which  cause  such  diseases 
as  typhoid  fever  and  tuberculosis,  so  field  and  garden  crops 
are  liable  to  suffer  from  certain  other  kinds  of  bacteria. 
Cabbage  leaves  occasionally  show  "  burnt  edges,"  the  work 
of  these  germs.  Turnips,  cauliflower,  kale,  and  other  mem- 
bers of  the  cabbage  tribe  may  be  affected  in  a  like  way. 
The  leaves  of  sweet  corn  now  and  then  wilt  and  dry  up 
because  their  water  supply  is  cut  off  by  the  work  of 
bacteria  in  diseased  tissue.  On  the  leaves  or  twigs  of  the 
common  pear  a  "  fire  blight "  often  breaks  out.  The  wilt- 
ing of  cucumbers  and  the  soft  rot  of  carrots  and  other 

208 


HOW  BACTERIA  MULTIPLY 


209 


vegetables  are  other  instances  of  the  destructive  work  of 
bacteria. 

155.  How  Bacteria  Multiply.  —  Bacteria  thrive  and  mul- 
tiply under  proper  conditions  of  food,  heat,  and  mois- 
ture.     With    a    strong 


microscope  they  may  be 
observed  to  elongate 
somewhat.  A  deepening 
groove,  extending  cross- 
wise near  the  middle, 
begins  to  appear  in  the 
individual  bacterium. 
In  a  half  hour,  if  the 
conditions  are  favorable, 
the  groove  may  have 
deepened  to  the  center, 
so  that  the  parts  will 
move  apart  and  form 
two  bacteria.  At  the 
end  of  another  half  hour, 
each  of  these  may  have 
divided  again,  and  the 
process  may  continue  in- 
definitely. The  more 
bacteria,  however,  the 
greater  the  demand  for 
food ;  and  since  the 
available  food  supply 
may  be  limited,  the 
growth  and  multiplication  of  bacteria  find  natural  limits. 
When  subjected  to  unfavorable  conditions  of  food,  heat, 
or  moisture,  certain  kinds  of  bacteria  surround  a  portion 
of  their  bodies  with  a  thick  waxy  coat,  which  enables 
them  to  withstand  the  rigors  of  freezing  weather  indef- 


CoMPOUND  Microscope. 
Used  to  detect  minute  objects. 


210 


COMMON  DISEASES  OF  CROPS 


initely,  and  to  endure  the  temperature  of  boiling  water 
for  perhaps  twenty  minutes.     The  parts  so  protected  are 

called  spores.  The  few  kinds 
of  bacteria  that  produce  diseases 
in  man  do  not,  however,  form 
spores,  and  are  therefore  more 
easily  killed  by  heat. 

156.  Control.  —  The  parts  of 
farm  plants  afflicted  with  a 
bacterial  disease  should  be  cut 
out,  or  pruned  away,  and  then 
burned,  because  they  cannot  be 
cured.  It  is  often  necessary  to 
destroy  an  entire  plant.  Care 
must  be  taken  to  prevent  diseased  tissue  from  touching 
healthy  parts,  because  diseases  of  this  nature  are  conta- 


Bacteria. 
Note  those  which  are  dividing. 


Plum  Rot. 

Showing  four  stages  from  right  to  left.     It  is  caused  by  a  parasitic 
fungus. 


gious.     Crop  rotation  is  often  an  efifective  means  of  keep- 
ing down  a  bacterial  disease,  since  the  germs  in  the  soil 


CONTROL  211 

are  likely  to  die  during  the  absence  of  the  particular  plant 
on  which  they  are  accustomed  to  feed. 

In  considering  the  best  treatment  for  plant  diseases, 
a  question  may  arise  as  to  whether  the  trouble  is  really  of 
bacterial  origin.  Often  this  is  difficult  to  determine  with- 
out the  aid  of  a  good  microscope.  This  difficulty,  how- 
ever, is  of  little  practical  importance  to  farmers.  It  is 
desirable  to  use  knife  and  fire  to  destroy  the  diseased 


Peach  Rot. 
Each  eruption  is  made  up  mostly  of  thousands  of  germs,  called  spores. 

parts  of  plants  affected  seriously  by  any  sort  of  blight, 
soft  rot,  or  gall  growths ;  and  when  a  field  crop  has  been 
diseased,  it  is  wise  not  to  sow  it  again  in  the  same  field  for 
three  or  four  years.  The  Bordeaux  Mixture  which  will 
be  described  in  §  158  is  supposed  only  to  protect  healthy 
plants,  not  to  cure  diseased  parts. 

In  fighting  plant  diseases  we  should  remember  that  we 
ought  to  strive  for  prevention  rather  than  cure.  The 
reason  we  destroy  plants  or  parts  of  plants  with  conta- 
gious diseases  is  in  line  with  our  practice  of  quarantining 
people  afflicted  with  scarlet  fever,  and  with  the  practice 


212 


COMMON  DISEASES  OF  CROPS 


of  isolating  or  killing  cattle  affected  by  the  foot-and-mouth 
disease.  Human  beings,  of  course,  are  taken  care  of,  and 
cured  if  possible,  but  under  such  conditions  as  not  to  be 
a  menace  to  healthy  people.  Valuable  cattle  are  killed, 
if  needful,  to  check  the  spread  of  their  disease.     And  as 

healthy  people  are  vac- 
cinated as  a  preven- 
tion against  contagious 
diseases  like  smallpox, 
so  healthy  plants  are 
sprayed  with  certain 
chemicals  to  ward  off 
disease  germs. 

157.  Pangfi  are  plants 
of  very  low  organiza- 
tion, for  they  produce 
neither  roots,  leaves, 
nor  flowers.  The  most 
familiar  examples  per- 
haps are  toadstools. 
Like  bacteria,  fungi  can- 
not manufacture  their 
own  food  directly  from 
the  soil,  but  must  depend 
on  other  organisms,  either  living  or  dead,  to  support  Ihem. 
Before  studying  about  certain  fungi  that  cause  diseases 
in  crops,  a  few  words  may  be  said  for  them,  and  for  their 
close  allies,  bacteria,  in  that  part  of  their  work  which 
befriends  the  farmer. 

The  farmer  is  greatly  indebted  to  these  fungi.  With- 
out their  aid,  the  surface  of  the  earth  would  be  choked 
up  with  old  undecayed  organisms,  and  much  of  the 
food  that  has  once  been  taken  from  the  soil  by  living 
beings  would  not  be  returned  to  it  again.     Like  bacteria, 


Shot-hole  Fungus  on  Apple  Leaves. 

This  fungus  is  spread  by  tiny  thread- 
like germs,  exuding  from  little  swellings 
on  the  leaf. 


MILDEW 


213 


fungi  are  great  destructive  agents.  Often  they  destroy 
substances  useless  to  man  and  at  the  same  time  convert 
part  of  those  substances  into  useful  products.  The  work 
of  converting  organic  matter 
into  humus  is  an  instance. 

The  chief  reason,  however, 
why  we  are  interested  in  fungi 
is  on  account  of  their  work  in 
destroying  useful  crops.  Of 
such  harmful  fungi  we  have 
space  to  notice  in  detail  only 
mildews,  smuts,  rusts,  scabs,  and 
molds. 

158.  Mildew  is  a  fungous  dis- 
ease to  which  all  the  higher 
plants  are  subject.  The  well- 
known  "  potato  blight "  may  be 
taken  as  a  type  of  the  mildews. 
This  disease  is  found  over  the 
entire  world  wherever  the  potato 
is  grown,  and  in  America  alone 
it  causes  an  annual  loss  equal 
to  several  millions  of  dollars. 
In  Ireland,  in  1845,  its  complete 
destruction  of  the  potato  crop 
caused  a  terrible  famine. 

When  first  attacked  by  mil- 
dew, the  edges  of  the  potato 
leaves  appear  water-soaked,  and 
have  a  faint  purplish  tint. 
As  dry  weather  comes  on,  the 
affected  parts  turn  brown.  Later,  the  entire  leaf  becomes 
affected.  Mildew  spores,  which  correspond  to  seeds  among 
the  higher  plants,  are  developed  in  great  numbers.     These 


Anthracnose  on  Bean  Pod. 
A  fungus  blight. 


214 


COMMON  DISEASES   OF  CROPS 


fall  to  the  ground  and  infect  the  tubers,  producing  a 
dry  rot,  —  which  may  be  followed  by  the  wet  rot,  induced 
by  the  action  of  molds  or  bacteria. 

77ie  main  prevention  of  all  fungous  diseases  is  by  spraying 
the  crop  with  Bordeaux  Mixture.  This  is  made  in  various 
strengths,  but  generally  from  the  5-5-50  formula.     Five 


Potato  Blight. 

The  vines  on  the  left  were  sprayed  with  Bordeaux  Mixture ;  those  to 
the  right  were  unsprayed. 

pounds  of  lime  are  slacked  in  a  barrel  containing  25  gal- 
lons water,  and  five  pounds  of  bluestone  are  dissolved  in 
another  barrel  containing  25  gallons  water.  When  the 
bluestone  is  in  solution,  it  is  mixed  with  the  lime,  and 
stirred  vigorously,  as  the  mixture  takes  place. 

In  case  of  danger  of  potato  blight,  the  plants  should  be 
sprayed  when,  no  higher  than  six  inches.  Two  weeks 
later  a  second  application  should  be  used ;  and  two  weeks 
later  still,  a  third  application.     Clean  "  seed,"  crop  rota- 


SMUT 


215 


tion,  and  spraying  will  enable  potato  growers  to  control 
this  blight. 

159.  Smut  is  a  fungus  that  attacks  such  grains  as  oats, 
wheat,  barley,  and  corn,  producing  upon  thera  a  foul- 
smelling,  black  powder, 
which  is  a  mass  of  spores. 
On  corn,  smut  begins  to 
appear  when  the  plant 
is  half  grown.  At  first 
it  forms  small,  whitish, 
wrinkled  spots  on  the 
surface  of  the  leaves. 
Later,  pustules,  or  small 
swellings,  may  begin  to 
show  on  the  tassel  and 
ears.  These  develop 
into  large  growths  with 
a  soft,  silvery  luster. 
When  mature,  these 
growths  break  open  and 
discharge  millions  of 
black  spores,  which 
spread  the  disease. 

While  the  losses  due 
to  diseases  are  difficult 
to  estimate  properly,  ex- 
perts claim  that  corn 
smut  causes  a  loss  of 
12,000,000  annually  in 
the  United  States.  The 
loss  from  oat  smut  is 
placed  at  $18,000,000 
yearly.  The  amount  of  damage  done  to  the  other  grains 
is  very  large.     Much  attention,  therefore,  has  been  given 


Clean  and  Smutted  Oats. 


216 


COMMON  DISEASES  OF  CROPS 


to  finding  the  best  methods  of  combating  these  fungous 
growths. 

To  control  smut  upon  corn,  it  is  best  to  rotate  the  crops 
and  to  destroy  the  affected  stalks  before  the  silvery  mem- 
brane about  the  spores  breaks.  Seeds  of  small  grain,  like 
rye,  barley,  wheat,  and  oats,  should  be  dipped  in  a  solution 
containing  thirty  gallons  of  water  to  one  pint  of  formalin. 
The  grain  may  be  placed  in  a  sack  for  this  purpose,  and 

soaked  for  about  ten 
minutes.  The  seed  must 
then  be  dried  immedi- 
ately. The  cost  of  this 
treatment  is  very  small 
in  proportion  to  its 
benefits. 

160.  Rust,  one  of  the 
chief  kinds  of  fungous 
growth,  gets  its  name 
from  the  fact  that  it  has 
somewhat  the  appear- 
ance of  iron  rust.  The 
most  important  varieties 
of  rusts  are  those  that 
attack  clover,  beans, 
wheat,  and  roses.  Although  the  number  of  species  runs 
up  into  the  hundreds,  and  although  they  affect  a  great 
variety  of  plants,  both  wild  and  cultivated,  their  presence 
often  escapes  notice.  Wheat  rust  produces  yellowish 
patches  on  the  stem  and  leaves;  and  while  it  does  not 
destroy  the  plant,  it  reduces  its  vitality  to  such  an  extent 
that  there  results  a  considerable  falling  off  in  the  wheat 
yields.  Other  rusts  act  in  a  like  way  upon  their  respect- 
ive plants. 

No  Batigfactory  method  of  fighting  this  trouble  has  been 


Corn  Smut. 

This  affects  stalk,  tassel,  silk,  husks, 
and  kernels. 


SCAB 


217 


Black  Knot  on  Plum  Twigs. 


worked  out.  Several  rust-proof  plants  are  widely  adver- 
tised, and  it  is  hoped  that  relief  from  the  pest  may  finally 
be  found  by  developing 
for  each  crop  a  rust-proof 
variety.  An  excess  of 
manure  and  nitrogen  in 
the  soil,  low  and  poorly 
drained  land,  and  late 
planting  (so  that  crops 
mature  late)  are  condi- 
tions that  favor  the 
ravages  of  the  disease. 
These  conditions  the 
farmer  can  partly  con- 
trol. 

161.  Scab  is  a  fungus 
known  best  in  the  form  of  "potato  scab."  The  surface 
of  the  common  potato  often  shows  reddish  or  brownish 
spots,  early  in  the  season  of  growth.     The  growth  soon 

develops  in  a  corky  crust. 

The  only  way  to  control 
potato  scab  is  to  use  clean 
seed  and  clean  soil.  Clean 
seed  may  be  insured  by  treat- 
ment with  formalin,  in  a  way 
similar  to  that  described  for 
small-grain  seed,  but  soaked 
for  two  hours  instead  of  ten 
minutes.  Clean  soil  may  be 
secured  by  crop  rotation. 
Potatoes  should  not  be  raised  upon  a  given  field  oftener 
than  once  in  three  or  four  years.  Scab  may  also  disfigure 
apples  and  pears  and  reduce  their  market  value  by  causing 
brownish  blotches  on  the  fruit.    The  most  effective  remedy 


A  Wood-destroying  Fungus. 


218 


COMMON  DISEASES  OF  CROPS 


is  to  spray  the  trees,  before  they  blossom,  with  Bordeaux 
Mixture  or  with  a  weak  solution  of  lime  and  sulphur. 

162.  Molds  are  fungi  that  not  only  affect  farm,  orchard, 
and  garden  crops,  but  which  also  concern  the  housewife, 
especially  in  canning  and  baking.  When  a  plant  sub- 
stance has  died,  molds  destroy  its  body  by  producing 
decay.  Molds  are  everywhere  present,  especially  in  damp, 
warm,  dark  places.  This  is  why  food  soon  "spoils"  in 
such  places.  If  fruit  or  vegetables  are  to  be  preserved  a 
long  time,  they  should  first  be  sterilized  by  boiling  for 
thirty  minutes,  then  sealed  in  air-tight  vessels,  and  kept 
in  a  cool  place.  We  shall  learn  more  about  this  subject 
in  Chapter  XVII. 

163.  Names  of  Fungous  Diseases  Attacking  Common  Crops. 


Apple 

Bean 

Cherry 

Anthracnose 

Anthracnose 

Black  Knot 

Black  Rot 

Blight 

Brown  Rot 

Blight 

Damping-off 

Crown  Gall 

Brown  Rot 

Powdery  Mildew 

Witches'  Broom 

Canker 

Rust 

Leaf  Spot 

Crown  Gall 

Powdery  Mildew 

Leaf  Spot 

Scab 

Powdery  Mildew 

Shot  Hole  Fungus 

Rust 

Scab 

Shot  Hole  Fungus 

Com 

Potato 

Wheat 

Damping-off 

Early  Blight 

Ergot 

Downy  Mildew 

Late  Blight 

Rust 

Smut 

Dry  Rot 

Smut 

Wilt 

Scab 

' 

Practical  Questions 
L   What  are  the  main  agents  causing  diseases  in  plants?    2.  Name 
three  plant  diseases  produced  by  bacteria.      3.   What  conditions  are 
most  favorable  for  the  multiplication  of  bacteria  ?    4.   State  two  ways 


SUGGESTIONS  219 

of  controlling  bacteria.  5.  Is  it  always  necessary  to  know  the  name 
of  the  agent  which  caused  the  disease  in  order  to  prevent  it  from 
spreading?  6.  What  is  the  potato  blight,  and  how  is  it  controlled? 
7.  In  what  way  can  the  smut  on  oats  be  controlled?  8.  Name  three 
important  rusts.     9.  What  damage  is  of  ten  done  by  scabs  ? 


Home  Studies 

1.  Try  out  the  formula  in  the  treatment  for  scab.  In  the  fall  bring  to 
school  potatoes  showing  the  effect  of  treating  the  seed  in  this  way. 
You  may  be  able  to  save  many  dollars  in  a  bad  scab  year. 

2.  Keep  on  the  lookout  for  plant  diseases  in  your  own  plot.  If 
any  disease  appears,  and  if  no  one  near  by  can  tell  you  what  to  do  to 
control  it,  send  a  specimen  at  once  to  your  experiment  station.  Fol- 
low the  directions  you  receive  from  the  station,  and  then  report  the 
benefits  of  the  treatment. 

Suggestions 

1.  As  a  class  demonstration  showing  the  contagious  character  of 
nearly  all  the  disease  agents,  take  a  clean  apple  and  a  partly  decayed 
one.  Rub  the  two  together  gently,  and  place  them  away  to  note  the 
results  a  little  later.  Rub  two  healthy  apples  together,  and  compare 
the  effect  with  that  of  the  first  experiment.  The  results  should  give 
an  important  lesson  on  the  necessity  of  destroying  diseased  tissues. 

2.  An  effort  should  be  made  to  gather  a  school  collection  of  diseased 
material  that  is  of  importance  locally.  In  corn  sections  every  boy 
should  be  able  to  recognize  corn  smut, and  know  how  to  control  it.  In 
potato  sections  he  should  have  a  like  knowledge  of  early  and  late 
blight,  dry  rot,  and  scab.  Teachers  should  go  into  details  on  such 
questions  of  local  interest. 

3.  A  detailed  discussion  on  the  complete  life  history  of  an  impor- 
tant plant  disease  should  be  given.  It  is  best  to  have  the  material  in 
school  so  as  to  show  every  stage.  For  this  work  a  compound  micro- 
scope is  very  helpful.  A  glance  at  fungus  spores  under  a  microscope 
makes  a  more  lasting  impression  on  the  pupil's  mind  than  a  half 
hour's  lecture. 

4.  In  many  freshly  diseased  plants,  as  in  the  twig  blight  of  the 
pear,  it  is  often  possible,  by  breaking  the  twig,  to  show  masses  of 
bacteria  oozing  out. 


220  COMMON  DISEASES   OF  CROPS 

Rrferknces 

Bacteria  in  Relation  to  Country  Life.     Lipman. 
Fungous  Diseases  of  Plants.     Duggar. 
A  Text  Book  of  Plant  Diseases.     Massee. 
Diseases  of  Economic  Plants.     Stevens  and  Hall. 
Farmers'  Bulletins.    Washington,  D.  C. 
91.   Potato  Disea-ses  and  Treatment. 

243.   Fungicides  and  their  Uses  in  Preventing  Diseases  of  Fruit. 

250.   The  Prevention  of  Wheat  Smut  and  Loose  Smut  of  Oats. 

267.   Apple  Bitter  Rot. 

440.   Spraying  Peaches  for  the  Control  of  Brown  Rot,  Scab,  and 
Curculio. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
THE  PARM  GAEDEN 


W%o  loves  a  garden,  loves  a  greenhouse,  too.  —  Cowpbb. 


164.  The  Purpose  of  the  Farm  Garden.  —  In  the  country, 
where  grocery  stores  are  widely  separated,  fresh  vegetables 
for  the  table  are  often  difficult  to  obtain.  Even  if  this 
were  not  so,  their  cost  at  a  store  would  mean  a  heavy  drain 


A  Farm  Garden. 

on  the  family  purse.  A  kitchen  garden  is  designed  to 
meet  these  difficulties  by  supplying  fresh  produce  for  the 
table  throughout  the  season  at  little  cost. 

165.  Planning  the  Garden.  —  The  garden  should  be  con- 
veniently located  with  reference  to  the  house,  because  the 
busy  women  of  the  household  have  to  visit  it  for  vegetables 
nearly  every  day  through  a  long  season.     It  should  be 

221 


222 


THE  FARM  GARDEN 


well  -  drained.  Prefer- 
ably, it  should  have  a 
southern  exposure. 
The  soil  should  be  a  rich, 
sandy  loam,  because 
vegetables  grown  on  a 
sandy  soil  are  finer  in 
texture  than  those  pro- 
duced on  a  clayey  soil. 
The  desirable  size  de- 
pends on  the  family  to 
be  supplied.  Where 
plenty  of  land  is  avail- 
able, there  is  a  consid- 
erable advantage  in  hav- 
ing it  of  ample  size,  so 
that  the  beds  may  be 
prepared     and    worked 

with  the  horse  and  cultivator,  and  so  that  an  abundance 

of  produce  may  be  raised. 

Perennial  crops,  such  as  rhubarb,  currants,  gooseberries, 


Handy  Garden  Tools. 


Asparagus  Plot. 


COMPANION  CROPPING 


223 


and  asparagus,  should  be  placed  beside  the  fence  so  as  not 
to  interfere  with  the  tillage.     Coarse  vegetables,  such  as 


Bush  Beans  Ready  to  Cover. 


beans,  peas,  tomatoes,  cabbage,  cauliflower,  potatoes,  and 
the  like,  are  best  planted  in  rows  30  inches  apart,  if  a 
horse    cultivator    is    to    be 


used.  For  onions,  lettuce, 
parsnips,  carrots,  and  beets, 
hand  cultivation  is  prefer- 
able, and  the  rows  need  not 
be  more  than  12  or  15  inches 
apart. 

166.  Companion  Cropping. 
—  It  is  often  convenient 
where  space  is  limited  to 
allow  an  early  maturing 
crop  and  a  late  maturing 
one  to  occupy  together  the 
same  space  of  ground.  This 
is  what  is  meant  by  the  terra 
companion  cropping.  Cab- 
bage and  lettuce,  for  example,  are  planted  in  alternate 
rows,  only  about  half  as  far  apart  as  the  cabbage  rows 
would  have  to  be  if  they  alone  were  planted.     This  ar- 


HiLL  OF  Sweet  Corn. 


224 


THE  FARM  GARDEN 


rangement  will  give  the  cabbages  plenty  of  room  while 
they  are  young ;  and  before  half  the  summer  has  passed 
the  lettuce  can  be  gathered.  Then  the  growing  cabbage 
will  have  the  entire  space  to  itself.  By  this  plan,  the 
lettuce  costs  no  space  and  little  extra  work.  Another 
form  of  companion  gardening  is  to  sow  radishes  in  the 

rows   of    parsnips,    car- 


rots, or  parsley.  The 
radishes  mature  early, 
and  pulling  them  thins 
the  rows  as  more  space 
is  needed  for  the  slower 
plants. 

167.  Succession  crop- 
ping is  another  way  to 
economize  garden  space. 
Turnips  and  celery  are 
used  to  "  succeed  "  rad- 
ishes, lettuce,  onions, 
spinach,  early  potatoes, 
and  like  crops  that  ma- 
ture in  time  to  be  re- 
placed by  others.  In 
places  with  a  long  season 
beans  may  follow  early 
sweet  corn,  and  late 
sweet  corn  may  succeed  early  potatoes.  Succession  crop- 
ping does  not  require  the  use  of  the  smaller  hand  tools  to 
the  extent  that  companion  cropping  does,  and  in  general 
demands  less  care  and  attention. 

168.  Seeds.  —  To  use  poor  seed  is  to  waste  time,  energy, 
and  money.  Most  seed  firms  publish  an  annual  illustrated 
catalog  in  which  seeds  and  plants  are  listed,  described,  and 
priced.     They  also  carry  on  a  mail  order  service.     A  firm 


Bantam  Sweet  Corn. 


HOTBEDS  AND   COLD  FRAMES 


225 


of  this  kind,  witli  a  good  reputation,  can  usually  be  trusted 
to  supply  good,  pure  seeds  with  strong  germs.  Seeds  put 
up  in  small  packages  and  sold  at  stores  are  usually  accept- 
able if  they  are  freih.  The  following  table  from  Green's 
Vegetable  Gardening  shows  the  average  life  of  common 
seeds  under  ordinary  conditions  of  storage. 


Kind 

Years 

Kind 

Years 

Kind 

Years 

Bean  .... 

3 

Endive  .     .     . 

10 

Pepper  .    .    . 

4 

Beet    .     . 

6 

Kohl-rabi    .     . 

5 

Pumpkin 

4 

Kale   .     . 

5 

Lettuce .     .     . 

5 

Radish  . 

6 

Cabbage  . 

6 

Corn.     .     .     . 

2 

Rhubarb 

8 

Carrot 

4 

Muskmelon     . 

6 

Salsify   . 

2 

Cauliflower 

6 

Onion    .     .     . 

2 

Spinach 

6 

Celery 

8 

Parsnip .     .     . 

2 

Squash  . 

6 

Cucumber 

10 

Parsley .     .     . 

3 

Tomato . 

4 

Egg  Plant 

6 

Pea   ...     . 

3 

The  seed  for  the  most  important  garden  crops  should  be 
tested  even  though  they  seem  fresh.  To  do  this,  count 
one  hundred  seeds  (Chapter  XIV),  and  place  them  between 
moist  blotters  that  are  inclosed  between  two  table  plates.^ 
Keep  the  parcel  warm  and  moist,  and  examine  it  daily. 
If  75  per  cent  of  the  sample  have  not  sprouted  well  be- 
fore the  end  of  a  week,  it  is  poor  policy  to  plant  the  seed. 
However,  celery,  parsnips,  and  other  members  of  the  par- 
snip family  may  be  allowed  more  than  a  week,  because 
their  seeds  germinate  slowly. 

169.  Hotbeds,  cold  frames,  and  forcings  boxes  are  im- 
portant aids  to  a  garden.     There  are  three  parts  to  a  hot- 


'  Common  Petri  dishes  (low  flat  dishes)  used  in  laboratories  for  raising 
bacteria  are  excellent  dishes  for  testing  small  seeds.  These  dishes  cost,  how- 
ever, about  fifteen  cents  a  set.  Moist  blotting  paper  is  placed  in  the  lower 
dish. 


226 


THE  FARM  GARDEN 


bed:  the  pit,  the  frame,  and  the  cover.  It  is  best  to 
run  the  pit  east  and  west  and  to  make  it  at  least  2  feet 
deep.  Inch  boards,  extending  about  12  inches  above  the 
ground  on  the  north  side  and  about  6  or  8  inches  on  the 
south,  constitute  the  frame.  This  gives  a  good  southern 
slope.  The  width  of  the  frame  depends  on  the  sash  or 
cover  at  hand.     Manure  which  has  just  begun  to  ferment 

is  placed  in  the  pit.  On 
top  of  the  manure  there 
should  be  a  dressing  of 
5  or  6  inches  of  loam. 
Around  the  outside  it  is 
well  to  bank  up  more 
manure.  The  ferment- 
ing of  the  manure  sup- 
plies heat  sufficient  for 
early  growth. 

No  pit  or  heating 
material  is  used  for  a  cold 
frame.  Plants  trans- 
planted directly  from 
the  hotbed  to  the  garden 
are  not  sufficiently  hard- 
ened ;  that  is,  not  accus- 
tomed to  the  cold.  The 
cold  frame,  therefore,  is  used  to  harden  plants  started 
either  in  the  house  or  hotbed  and  also  to  start  plants  late 
in  the  season. 

Forcing  boxes  enable  the  farmer  to  get  plants  like 
asparagus  and  rhubarb  several  weeks  earlier  than  these 
vegetables  could  be  grown  without  them.  Considering 
the  high  price  of  early  vegetables,  forcing  boxes  are  very 
desirable.  Forcing  is  a  simple  process.  In  late  fall, 
ordinary  boxes  are  placed  over  the  plants.     Around  the 


Bean  Plant. 

The  large  nodules  were  broken  off  in 

pulling. 


HOTBEDS  AND  COLD  FRAMES 


227 


Making  a  Hot-Bed. 
The  work  of  a  high  school  class  in  Vegetable  Gardening. 


A  Bean  Project. 
Ruined  by  too  much  Paris  Green. 


228 


THE  FARM  GARDEN 


boxes  stable  manure  is  banked  to  furnish  enough  heat  to 
keep  the  soil  warm  and  to  prevent  freezing.  The  plants 
will  be  kept  more  or  less  active  through  a  considerable 
part  of  the  winter,  and  they  may  be  made  ready  for  the 
market  very  early  in  spring. 

170.   No  special  directions  for  raising  the  different  sorts 
of  garden  produce  are  given  here.     The  best  seed  houses 

usually  distribute   free, 


*i. 


with  orders  for  seeds, 
admirable  little  booklets 
giving  directions  much 
fuller  than  could  be  put 
into  a  textbook  for  the 
planting  and  cultivation 
of  all  kinds  of  fruits  and 
vegetables.  Here  it 
need  only  be  added  that 
the  garden  should  con- 
tain a  great  variety,  and 
an  abundance  of  each 
sort  that  is  planted.  By 
all  means  there  should 
he  a  series  of  plantings 
of  such  vegetables  as  peas,  lettuce,  sweet  corn,  and  beans, 
so  as  to  have  these  eatables  in  the  best  condition  through 
a  long  season.  Any  surplus  need  not  be  wasted.  Direc- 
tions for  its  use  will  be  given  in  the  next  chapter. 


Celery. 


Practical  Questions 

1.  State  two  purposes  of  a  farm  garden.  2.  Name  three  things  a 
farmer  should  consider  in  selecting  a  site  for  the  garden.  3.  What  is 
meant  by  companion  cropping  ?  4.  Name  as  many  early  and  late  vege- 
tables as  you  can.  5.  In  what  three  ways  may  seed  be  poor  ?  6.  How 
would  you  test  the  sprouting  power  of  radish  seeds?  7.  Explain  the 
making  of  a  hotbed,    ti.   How  is  the  heat  produced  in  a  hotbed  ? 


SUGGESTIONS  229 

Home   Exercises 

1.  Select  one  of  the  many  home  projects  for  the  raising  of  small 
fruits  or  vegetables  that  are  provided  by  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  or  by  your  State  College  of  Agriculture.  With 
the  aid  of  the  teacher  or  of  the  county  agent,  decide  on  the  raising  of 
some  garden  fruit  or  vegetable,  and  then  assist  in  the  organizing  of  a 
club,  if  there  is  not  one  already  in  existence,  and  compete  for  the  prizes 
offered. 

2.  Make  a  hotbed  and  a  cold  frame  according  to  the  directions 
given.  As  soon  as  the  vegetables  are  ready  for  table  use,  bring  a  few 
specimens  to  school,  with  a  report  on  how  the  work  was  done.  The 
teacher  will,  no  doubt,  allow  credit  for  such  practical  work. 

Suggestions 

1.  If  sufficient  land  cannot  be  secured  for  a  school  garden  at  or 
near  the  school  building  without  reducing  the  size  of  the  playground, 
it  is  best  for  pupils  either  to  have  a  separate  home  plot  or  to  work 
jointly  with  their  parents  in  the  home  garden.  Vegetables,  it  is  true, 
may  be  grown  with  some  success  in  window  boxes,  and  many  interest- 
ing and  instructive  facts  may  be  learned  in  this  way.  It  is  always 
best,  however,  to  carry  on  experiments  as  nearly  as  possible  under 
natural  conditions.  Neither  the  schoolroom  nor  the  ordinary  school 
garden  supplies  these.  For  demonstrating  seed  testing,  however, 
there  is  no  place  better  than  the  schoolroom.  The  process,  too,  is 
simple,  and  it  presents  many  opportunities  for  a  little  manual  work 
and  for  gathering  material  for  problems  in  farm  arithmetic. 

2.  In  many  parts  of  our  country,  parents  set  aside  about  a  quarter 
of  an  acre  or  more  for  their  children  to  use,  as  a  little  farm  or  garden. 
Suggestions  as  to  how  and  what  to  plant  may  be  given  in  school. 
Occasionally,  the  teacher  may  visit  these  little  farms.  Exhibitions 
may  be  made  in  the  fall.  A  careful  record  of  every  operation  should 
be  kept :  the  cost  of  plowing,  cultivating,  and  harvesting ;  the  price 
paid  for  seeds ;  the  money  received  for  produce ;  and  the  profits  or 
losses.  The  Club  idea  gives  greater  purpose  and  meaning  to  the 
work.  Credit  should  be  allowed  for  work  of  this  nature  done  out  of 
school. 

3.  Pupils,  however,  should  be  taught  to  cooperate  as  well  as  to 
compete  for  prizes. 


230  THE  FARM  GARDEN 

References 

How  to  Grow  Vegetables.     French. 

The  Practical  Garden  Book.    Bailey  and  Hunn. 

Farmer's  Bulletins.     Washington,  D.  C. 

154.   The  Home  Fruit  Garden :    Preparation  and  Care. 

198.    Strawberries. 

220.   Tomatoes. 

254.  Cucumbers. 

255.  The  Home  Vegetable  Garden. 

Tomato  Growing  as  Club  Work.     Washington,  D.  C. 
Tomato  Growing.     Washington,  D.  C. 
Agricultural  Contests.     Ithaca,  N.  Y. 
Home-garden  Planning.     Ithaca,  N.  Y. 
Vegetable  Gardening.     Ithaca,  N.  Y. 
A  Farm  Garden.     Columbus,  Ohio. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

KEEPING  THE  GARDEN  PEODUGE 


Every  housewife  may  run  a  miniature  canning  factory  in  her  own 
kitchen,  and  on  the  farm-  this  is  especially  econoTnical  and  desirable, 
the  economy  being  less  pronounced  in  the  case  of  city  dwellers,  who 
Tnust  buy  their  fruits  and  vegetables.  —  Beeazeale. 


171.  The  Need.  —  Every  child  knows  that  raw  fruits  and 
vegetables  do  not  keep  well  unless  properly  cared  for. 
The  garden,  perhaps,  has  produced  a  crop  much  too  large 


Kitchen  Canning. 


for  immediate  table  use  or  for  the  demands  of  the  market. 
Are  we  willing  to  allow  the  surplus  that  we  cannot  eat 
or  sell  to  spoil  or  go  to  waste  ?     This  would  not  be  good 

231 


232 


KEEPING   THE  GARDEN  PRODUCE 


management.  Yet  it  is  claimed  that  in  many  states  half 
of  such  surplus  garden  produce  does  go  to  waste.  And 
during  the  long  winter  months  when  jellies  and  canned 
vegetables  would  relieve  the  sameness  of  the  table  fare 
and  would  make  the  meals  more  appetizing  and  wholesome, 
farmers  are  often  obliged  to  go  without  these  things  or  to 
pay  a  high  price  for  them. 

Often  the  result  is  too  large  a  use  of  meat.  Meat  at 
nearly  every  meal  may  not  be  injurious  if  it  is  accompanied 
by  a  liberal  supply  of  plant  products,  but  it  is  a  common 

practice  on  farms  to 
serve  too  much  meat 
in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  vegetables. 
The  practice  is  extrava- 
gant, as  well  as  harmful 
to  health.  Now  most 
of  the  surplus  garden 
produce  —  even  very 
perishable  kinds  of  it  — 
can  easily  be  kept  for 
winter  use  in  forms  that 
are  both  wholesome  and 
toothsome.  The  chief  ways  of  doing  this  deserve  attention. 
Jelly  making^  canning,  and  preserving  are  slightly  differ- 
ent ways  of  keeping  perishable  fruits  and  vegetables. 
Some  produce  is  best  suited  to  one  of  the  three  methods, 
some  to  another. 

172.    To  make  jelly  in  the  best  and  most  attractive  form,  — 

a.    Select  only  perfect  fruit,  or  perfect  parts  of  the  fruit. 

h.    Wash  it  thoroughly,  having  first  removed  the  stems. 

If  one  is  making  a  large  quantity  of  jelly,  however,  it  takes 

much  time  to  remove  stems  from  such  fruit  as  grapes 

and  currants,  and  to  let  them  remain  will  make  hardly  any 


Home  Canning  Outfit. 


HOW  TO  MAKE  JELLY 


233 


Yeast. 
Note  the  "budding,"  or  re- 
producing, 
sugars. 


Yeast    ferments 


perceptible  difference  in  the    result.     Large  fruits,  like 
apples,  should  be  cut  into  small  pieces. 

c.  Place  the  fruit  in  a  saucepan  or  in  a  large  ket- 
tle, according  to  the  quantity. 
The  utensils  should  be  por- 
celain lined,  or  made  of  granite 
iron,  or  of  some  other  substance 
that  is  not  easily  affected  by 
fruit  acids. 

d.  Add  a  little  water  unless 
the  fruit  is  very  juicy.  Rasp- 
berries need  none,  or  very  little  ; 
currants  need  only  about  half  a 
cupful  to  four  cups  of  fruit,  and 
much  less  will  do  if  the  fruit 
at  the  bottom  of  the  kettle  is 
mashed;  apples  and  quinces  need  to  be  nearly  covered 
with  water. 

Cook  slowly,  with  frequent  stirring.  When  the  fruit 
begins  to  simmer,  crush  it  with  a 
masher.  Continue  cooking  un- 
til the  mass  is  cooked  through. 
/.  Strain  through  sterilized 
cheesecloth  bags.  Suspend  the 
bags  over  bowls,  and  allow  the 
juice  to  drain  for  half  an  hour. 
The  bags  may  be  squeezed 
lightly,  to  assist  this  process. 
At  the  close  of  the  half  hour, 
the  bags  may  be  squeezed  until 
no  more  juice  can  be  pressed 
out,  but  this  "  second  juice " 
should  not  be  mixed  with  the  first.  It  contains  less  of  the 
gummy  substance  known  as  pectin,  and  it  holds  more  pulp. 


e. 


Molds. 

Each  black  spot  is  a  mass  of 

germs  or  spores. 


234 


KEEPING   THE  GARDEN  PRODUCE 


It  may  be  made  into  a  second  grade  of  jelly  by  itself,  or 
it  may  be  used  in  marmalades,  fruit  butters,  and  so  on. 
Instead  of  squeezing  the  bags,  the  contents  may  be  covered 
with  water,  and,  often  standing  over  night,  boiled  again  for 
a  "second  jelly,"  and  the  process  may  even  be  repeated 
again  for  a  "  third  jelly  "  with  currants  and  grapes. 

g.    Boil  the  first  juice  from  ten  to  twenty  minutes,  accord- 
ing to  the  fruit,  skimming  away  any  scum  that  may  form. 
h.    Then  add  sugar.     Raspberry  or  currant  juice  needs 

an  amount  of  sugar 
equal  to  its  own  bulk ; 
apples  or  plums  need  a 
little  less.  The  sugar 
should  first  be  heated, 
so  as  not  to  cool  the 
juice  needlessly,  and  it 
should  not  be  added 
faster  than  the  juice  can 
dissolve  it.  Stirring 
will  help  to  keep  the 
sugar  from  burning  on 
the  bottom  of  the  kettle. 
If  the  sugar  is  added  too 
soon,  it  loses  much  of  its  sweetness  in  the  necessary 
boiling,  and  a  larger  amount  is  required. 

i.  Continue  to  boil  until  the  juice  "  jellies,"  or  thickens 
slightly.  This  eighth  step  is  tlie  critical  part  of  the  whole 
process.  The  addition  of  the  sugar  makes  the  juice  liable 
to  boil  over  unless  it  is  watched  closely  ;  and  if  the  boil- 
ing is  allowed  longer  than  necessary  by  only  a  few 
minutes,  the  jelly  will  be  more  solid  than  desirable.  The 
jelly  maker  learns  to  know  the  point  at  which  to  stop  by 
observing  the  behavior  of  the  juice  when  a  little  is 
dropped  from  a  spoon  or  when  it  is  left  for  a  few  seconds 


Dried  Corn. 


HOW  TO  MAKE  JELLY 


235 


% 


a 


to  cool  in  a  small  plate.       Usually  five  minutes  is  long 
enough,  unless  too  much  water  was  added  at  first. 

J.  Clean  tumblers  should  first  be  sterilized  by  scalding 
out  with  water  or  by  being  placed  in  a  hot  oven  for  ten 
minutes.  While  being  filled  with  the  hot  juice,  they  should 
be  placed  upon  a  cloth  that  has  been  wrung  out  in  water, 
or  in  a  pan  with  a  little  water  in  the  bottom,  to  guard 
against  breaking.  Pour 
the  jelly  into  tumblers 
and  set  it  aside  to  harden. 

k.  The  following  day 
the  glasses  must  be  cov- 
ered. A  little  melted 
paraffine  may  be  used 
to  cover  the  jelly  in  each 
glass  ;  or  a  thin  paper 
wet  in  alcohol  or  brandy 
may  be  used.  The  pur- 
pose, in  either  case,  is  to 
shut  out  all  air  from  the 
surface.  After  this,  the 
glasses  themselves  are  covered,  either  with  tin  caps  or 
with  papers  tied  firmly  upon  them. 

There  is  a  great  saving  of  time  in  making  large  quantities 
of  jelly  in  one  operation.  If  the  fruit  can  he  secured^  it 
does  not  take  much  longer  to  make  a  hundred  glasses  iri  one 
day  than  to  make  twenty.  This  matter  is  especially  impor- 
tant to  the  ever-husy  farm  housewife. 

The  best  jellies  are  made  from  currants,  grapes,  rasp- 
berries, apples,  crab  apples,  plums,  and  quinces,  or  by 
some  mixture  of  these  juices.  Raspberry  jelly  has  per- 
haps too  strong  a  flavor  by  itself,  but  some  raspberry 
juice,  added  to  currants  or  apples,  imparts  a  very  delicate 
flavor  to  the  compound.     So,  too,  crab  apples,  plums,  or 


#  9 


^    i 


Canned  Corn. 


286 


KEEPING   THE  GARDEN  PRODUCE 


rhubarb  are  used,  not  only  to  dilute  raspberry  juice,  but 
also  to  make  it  "  jell "  more  readily. 

Almost  any  cook  book  contains  full  directions  for  mak- 
ing each  kind  of  jelly.  The  ideal  product  calls  forth  high 
praise  both  for  its  food  value  and  for  its  beauty. 

"  The  jelly  should  be  a  beautifully  colored,  transparent,  palatable 
product,  obtained  by  so  treating  fruit  juice  that  the  resulting  mass 
will  quiver,  not  flow,  when  removed  from  its  mold ;  a  product  with 
texture  so  tender  that  it  cuts  easily  with  a  spoon,  and  yet  so  firm 
that  the  angles  thus  produced  retain  their  shape ;  a  clear  product 
that  is  neither  sirupy,  gummy,  sticky,  nor  tough,  neither  is  it  brittle, 
and  yet  it  will  break,  doing  this  with  a  distinct  beautiful  change  that 
leaves  sparkling  characteristic  faces.  This  is  that  delicious,  appetiz- 
ing substance,  a  good  fruit  jelly." 


173.   Canning  is  somewhat  more 
ing,   but   it   is   cheaper,    and    it 


diflBcult  than  jelly  mak- 
preserves  more  of  the 
produce.  Each  farm 
home  should  get  from 
Washington  a  free  copy 
of  Farmers'  Bulletin^ 
359,  which  contains  a 
description  of  many  of 
the  newer  canning  de- 
vices and  utensils. 
Other  free  circulars  give 
detailed  accounts  of  the 
handling  of  all  common 
garden  produce.  Ac- 
cordingly, we  give  here 
only  general  directions 
for  canning  one  common 
fruit,  one  easy  vegeta- 
ble, one  green,  and  one  difficult  vegetable. 

a.    Tomatoes.     Select  ripe  tomatoes,  but  not  over  ripe, 


Dried  Peaches. 

Bacteria  cannot  destroy  these,  because 
germs  need  water. 


CANNING 


237 


and  see  that  they  are  free  from  taints  and  spots.  They 
should  be  graded  as  to  quality,  size,  and  ripeness,  and  each 
kind  should  be  canned  by  itself.  Place  the  tomatoes  in  a 
vessel  and  scald  them  thoroughly.  This  loosens  up  the 
skins,  which  should  now  be  removed.  If  the  jars  are  large 
enough,  the  tomatoes  should  be  packed  in  them  whole  ; 
if  necessary,  cut  them  before  packing.  Add  a  little  salt 
to  the  can.  Close  the  top  loosely^  and  sterilize  for  thirty 
minutes  in  hot  water  or  steam.  Remove  the  jars,  and 
tighten  the  tops.  It  is 
well  to  place  the  jar 
upside  down  to  see  if  it 
is  closed  tightly.  If  tin 
cans  are  used,  care  must 
be  taken  to  see  if  they 
are  properly  capped  and 
tipped. 

h.  Eggplant.  Egg- 
plant should  also  be 
scalded  thoroughly  and 
then  plunged  into  cold 
water  to  make  it  easy 
to  remove  the  skins. 
Being  larger  than  tomatoes,  the  eggplant  must  be  sliced 
before  being  packed  in  the  jar  or  can.  Boiling  water 
containing  a  little  salt  is  now  poured  on  the  vegetable  in 
the  container.  Sterilize  for  one  hour  in  hot  water,  after 
which  the  containers  should  be  tightly  covered,  and 
inverted. 

c.  Spinach.  Spinach,  like  eggplant,  is  a  vegetable,  but 
is  commonly  called  a  green.  Scald  for  a  few  minutes  in 
boiling  water  for  blanching,  and  then  plunge  in  cold  water. 
Boil  the  greens  in  a  pan  for  a  half  hour  to  shrink  them. 
Pack  them  in  the  jar  or  can,  and  add  hot  water  containing 


Dried  Apricots. 


238 


KEEPING   THE  GARDEN  PRODUCE 


a  little  salt.     Sterilize  for  one  hour,  and  then  tighten  the 
covers  and  invert  while  cooling. 

d.  Peas  are  an  example  of  a  vegetable  that  calls  for 
more  sterilizing  than  the  kinds  so  far  described.  Shell 
and  wash  young  peas  as  for  cooking.  Pack  them  in  glass 
jars  with  their  rubbefs  ready  for  sealing.  Pour  in  cold 
water,  as  much  as  the  jar  will  hold.  Place  the  jars  in  a 
steamer  and  sterilize  for  an  hour.  Seal  the  jars.  The 
next  day,  loosen  the  tops  of  the  jars  and  sterilize  again  for 

an  hour;  then  seal  the 
jars  again.  Repeat  this 
process  a  third  time  on 
the  next  day.  Then 
the  jars  may  be  put 
away.  The  first  day's 
sterilizing  will  kill  all 
the  bacteria,  but  the 
second  and  third  day's 
sterilizing  is  needed  to 
kill  the  seeds  which 
otherwise  might  grow 
into  bacteria.  Sweet 
corn  and  beans  are 
treated  essentially  as 
peas  are. 
With  other  materials,  the  principle  of  canning  is  the 
same.  See  that  the  material  is  in  good  condition.  Discard 
skins,  cores,  and  stems,  if  they  detract  from  the  appearance 
and  value  of  the  canned  product.  Some  people  add  con- 
siderable sugar  when  canning  peaches  and  pineapples: 
others  do  not.  Some  prefer  to  leave  the  stones  in  peaches: 
others  remove  them. 

174.  The  main  differences  between  canning  and  jelly  mak- 
ing are  two.     In  jelly  making,  more  sugar  is  used,  and  less 


Dried  Apples. 

The  drying  of  apples  has  become  an 
important  industry. 


STILL   SIMPLER  METHODS  239 

of  the  fruit  or  vegetable  substance  is  kept.  Both  these 
differences  are  reasons  why  jellies  are  less  liable  to  attack 
by  bacteria  and  fungi  than  canned  products  are.  In  both 
processes,  all  bacteria  are  killed  by  heat ;  but  in  canning, 
it  is  absolutely  essential  to  see  that  the  jar  is  filled  to  the 
top,  so  as  to  drive  out  all  air,  and  that  it  be  covered,  while 
still  hot,  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  it  absolutely  air-tight. 
Jellies  contain  so  much  sugar  that  bacteria  and  fungi  can- 
not thrive  on  them.  Jelly,  therefore,  will  keep  a  long 
time  without  an  air-tight  covering. 

175.  "  Preserves "  are  intermediate  in  character  between 
jellies  and  canned  goods.  The  whole  fruit  is  used,  or  a 
great  part  of  it,  not  merely  the  juice  ;  and  it  is  cooked 
with  at  least  three  fourths  its  weight  in  sugar.  Preserves 
keep  more  easily  than  canned  fruits,  but  they  do  not 
retain  so  well  the  natural  flavors.  Both  jellies  and 
preserves  are  indigestible,  in  large  quantities,  because 
of  the  large  amount  of  sugar  in  them,  while  canned 
goods  are  perfectly  wholesome,  if  the  canning  is  properly 
done. 

176.  "  Curing."  —  The  three  processes  so  far  described  all 
preserve  the  juices  of  fruits  and  vegetables  in  a  more  or 
less  liquid  state.  Some  crops,  however,  may  be  kept  con- 
veniently by  the  simpler  work  of  merely  drying  the  water 
out  of  their  juices.  This  method  is  workable  because 
bacteria  and  fungi  cannot  thrive  without  moisture. 
Apples,  peaches,  cherries,  beans,  peas,  and  sweet  corn  are 
preserved  in  this  way.  Large  fruits,  like  apples,  must 
first  be  cut  into  slices.  The  principle  in  "  curing  "  vege- 
tables is  the  same  as  in  "  jerking  "  meats  or  in  smoking 
hams.  Unfortunately  some  of  the  natural  flavor  is  usually 
lost  in  the  process. 

177.  Still  simpler  methods  keep  many  garden  crops  through 
the  winter.      These   simple  methods   apply  where   it   is 


240       KEEPING   THE  GARDEN  PRODUCE 

necessary,  not  to  kill  bacteria  to  begin  with,  but  only  to 
prevent  their  too  rapid  growth  in  the  stored  produce. 

Potatoes,  we  all  know,  need  only  to  be  stored  in  dry  bins 
where  they  will  not  freeze  and  where  the  temperature  will 
be  between  forty  and  thirty-three  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Onions  need  only  a  little  more  care.  They  would  spoil 
if  piled  up  in  deep  bins,  like  potatoes  ;  but  they  will  keep 
if  spread  in  thin  layers  on  a  garret  floor,  or  if  stored  in 


Meeting  of  a  Tomato  Canning  Club. 

shallow  boxes  that  are  piled  up  in  any  dry  cool  place  in  such 
a  way  as  to  let  the  air  circulate  a  little  through  the  contents. 
Cabbages  need  to  be  placed  so  that  they  will  not  touch 
one  another,  and  then  to  be  covered  with  a  few  inches  of 
dry  straw  or  dry  sand.  Freezing  is  not  hurtful,  if  there 
is  not  too  much  thawing  and  freezing ;  and  so,  in  cold 
regions,  if  room  is  lacking  in  the  cellar,  this  vegetable  may 
be  kept  in  the  way  just  described  in  shallow  trenches  out- 
of-doors,  for  use  the  following  spring.  For  winter  use,  it 
is  usually  enough  to  wrap  the  heads  in  dry  paper  and  pile 
them  up  on  cellar  shelves. 


SUGGESTIONS  241 

Celery  should  be  taken  from  the  garden  in  the  fall  and 
planted  in  close  rows  in  the  cellar,  and  then  watered  occa- 
sionally. The  absence  of  light  will  bleach  the  stalks  and 
make  them  tender. 

The  cellar,  mentioned  so  often  in  the  paragraph  above, 
is  the  most  common  storage  place  for  vegetables  for  family 
use.  Its  temperature  for  this  purpose,  however,  must  be 
kept  only  a  little  above  freezing.  Thus,  in  moderately 
warm  climates,  an  outside  excavation  is  often  preferable. 

Practical  Questions 

1.  Why  should  we  make  an  effort  to  make  some  of  our  table  prod- 
uce last  for  the  winter?  2.  What  is  meant  by  the  terms  canning 
and  preserving?  3.  Why  is  more  produce  canned  than  preserved? 
4.  What  causes  certain  foods  to  spoil  ?  5.  Can  you  distinguish  be- 
tween a  condition  and  a  cause  as  applied  to  the  decay  of  foods? 
6.  Explain  the  steps  of  making  jelly.  7.  What  would  you  call  good 
jelly?  8.  How  may  cabbage,  apples,  and  currants  be  kept  for  the 
winter  ? 

Home  Exercises 

1.  Join  a  canning  club.  Full  directions  can  be  obtained  by  writ- 
ing to  the  State  College  of  Agriculture,  or  to  the  Bureau  of  Plant 
Industry,  Washington,  D.  C. 

2.  Write  a  report  on 

(a)  what  part  of  your  home  garden  produce  is  kept  for  the  winter; 

(b)  the  quantity  of  each  kind  of  produce  kept; 

(c)  the  different  methods  used  in  keeping  it ; 

(rf)  the  profits  or  losses  in  this  work  when  compared  with  the  pur- 
chase price  of  similar  articles. 

Suggestions 

1.  Place  a  slice  of  moist  bread  under  a  plate  for  a  few  days.  Ex- 
amine the  molds  —  a  fluffy  growth  darkened  here  and  there  —  and  the 
colonies  of  bacteria,  which  are  smooth  growths.  If  the  bread  is  kept 
dry,  no  germs  will  develop. 

2.  Place  two  apples  on  the  desk.  Prick  the  skin  of  one  at  several 
places  with  a  pin.     Observe  them  carefully  from  day  to  day  to  see 


242       KEEPING   THE  GARDEN  PRODUCE 

where  rotting  first  begins.     The  result  suggests  why  nature  protects 
such  perishable  objects  with  a  skin. 

3.   If  heating  facilities  can  be  obtained  in  the  schoolroom,  demon- 
strate the  principle  of  canning  as  an  aid  to  the  home  work. 

References 

Farmers*  Bvdletins: 
359.   Canning  Vegetables  in  the  Home. 
426.   Canning  Peaches  on  the  Farm. 
521.  Canning  Tomatoes  in  Clubs  and  for  Market. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 
POTATOES 


Amon^  the  vegetables,  the  potato,  in  this  country  at  least,  is  the 
most  generally  used.  It  has  of  late  been  decried  as  having  no  good 
value.    TJtis  is  far  from  true.  —  Alice  Norton. 


178.  Importance  and  Origin.  —  If  all  the  land  of  the  United 

States    devoted    to    the 

growing  of  potatoes  were 
combined  into  one  field, 
it  would  cover  an  area 
of  about  five  thousand 
square  miles,  or  the  en- 
tire state  of  Connecticut. 
Our  main  potato  belt  ex- 
tends from  Maine  south- 
ward to  Maryland  and 
westward  to  Kansas. 

The  potato  is  native 
to  America.  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh  introduced  it 
into  Europe  in  the  year 
1584.  It  became  popular 
there  at  once,  and  to-day 
it  is  grown  even  more 
extensively  abroad  than 
in  this  country.  About 
one  tenth  of  the  world's 
supply  is  grown  in  the 


Young  Potato  Plant. 


^ 


244 


POTATOES 


United  States.     The  total  yearly  production  is  about  five 
billion  bushels.    See  Appendix  A,  Chart  IV,  page  468. 

179.  The  potato  is  a  store  of  starchy  food  put  away  in  a 
modified  stem,  or  tuber.  It  is  not  a  root.  This  lias  been  ex- 
pliiined  in  Chapter  XII.  The  "eyes"  are  buds  on  the 
enlarged  stem.  A  cross  section  of  the  tuber  shows  the 
same  arrangement  of  bark  and  pith  that  the  stem  has  above 


Covering  Potatoes  with  a  Two-winged  Plow. 


ground.  And  the  tubers  do  not  have  the  small  rootlets 
that  can  be  found  on  the  true  potato  roots. 

180.  Variety.  —  About  the  first  thing  to  be  decided  by 
the  potato  raiser  is  the  variety  of  potato  that  he  shall  grow. 
Several  matters  are  concerned  in  this  decision,  such  as 
yield,  resistance  to  disease,  cooking  qualities,  shape,  ej'es, 
leaves,  color,  and  the  practice  of  neighbors. 

a.    Early  varieties  usually  yield  less  than  late  ones. 

h.  Certain  varieties,  like  the  Carmen  No.  3  and  the  Rural 
New  Yorker,  have  great  power  to  resist  common  diseases. 


SEED   SELECTION 


245 


c.  When  baked  or  boiled,  the  potato  should  be  dry,  mealy, 
and  floury,  —  not  wet  or  soggy.  Nor  should  it  have  an 
earthy  flavor. 

d.  A  long,  pointed,  or  irregular  shape,  in  a  variety  not 
naturally  so,  may  indicate  lack  of  vigor.  Rounded  or 
oval  tubers,  too,  are  easier  to  handle,  suffer  less  waste  in 
peeling,  and  are  usually  cleaner. 

e.  Deep  eyes  cause  waste  in  peeling.  They  also  hold 
moisture,  which  promotes  decay. 


Cultivating  Potatoes. 

When  potatoes  are  cultivated  as  late  as  this,  too  many  roots  are  likely 
to  be  cut. 

/.  The  foliage  should  be  ample.  A  thick,  high  leaf  re- 
sists unfavorable  conditions  of  climate. 

g.  Some  markets  prefer  white  potatoes  ;  some,  red.  The 
farmer  must  follow  the  demand  of  his  market. 

h.  Neighborhood  agreement  is  important.  If  the  farmers 
of  a  locality  raise,  in  the  main,  the  same  variety,  they  will 
find  it  easier  to  market  the  produce,  and  they  will  get  a 
better  price  for  it. 

181.  Seed  selection  is  the  second  part  of  the  grower's 
work.     Neither  very  large  nor  very  small  potatoes  should 


246  POTATOES 

be  used.     An  average-sized  tuber,  true  to  type  in  shape,  is 
preferable. 

Hill  selection^  that  is,  picking  out  seed  potatoes  in  the 
field  from  large  hills,  i%  better  than  bin  selection.  The  pota- 
toes in  one  hill  may  weigh  twelve  ounces,  and  those  in  an- 
other eight  ounces,  though  the  better  ones  in  the  two  hills 
may  look  just  alike.  The  potatoes  of  the  better  hill  will 
tend  to  transmit  to  the  next  generation  their  high  producing 


Class  Selecting  Seed  Potatoes. 

quality.      In  selecting  seed  from  the  bin,  one  could  not 
tell  whether  the  seed  came  from  a  high  or  low  yielding  hill. 

182.  The  soil  should  be  of  a  sandy  or  gravelly  loam,  if 
possible.  Potatoes  are  less  likely  to  be  attacked  by  rot  in 
sandy  soils  than  in  clayey  ones.  In  crop  rotation,  potatoes 
best  follow  clover.  In  selecting  a  commercial  fertilizer, 
one  strong  in  potash  is  best ;  and  unless  nitrogen  has  been 
supplied  to  the  soil  by  clover,  that  costly  element  also 
must  be  secured  in  the  fertilizer.  In  clayey  soils,  how- 
ever, where  manure  poor  in  phosphoric  acid  has  been 
applied,  some  fertilizer  rich  in  phosphoric  acid  should  be 
applied  directly  to  the  crop,  or  elsewhere  in  the  rotation. 
See  Bulletin  187,  Geneva,  N.Y.  Potato  planting  should 
be  preceded  by  deep  plowing. 

183.  In  planting  we  must  consider  the  distance  apart  at 
which  to  place  seed,  and  the  depth. 


CULTIVATION  247 

a.  Early  varieties  are  planted  as  close  as  12  x  27  inches ; 
the  late  ones  which  spread  more  are  placed  somewhat 
farther  apart. 

b.  The  two  hinds  of  culture  govern  the  depth  of  planting. 
In  level  culture^  planting  potatoes  three  to  four  inches 
below  the  surface  is  the  prevailing  practice.     Where  the 


Potato  Digger. 

soil  is  heavy  and  the  rows  are  *■'•  ridged^''''  planting  them 
two  to  three  inches  deep  is  sufficient. 

184.  Cultivation.  —  A  week  after  planting,  the  field 
should  be  gone  over  in  both  directions  with  a  spike-toothed 
harrow,  to  loosen  up  the  ground  and  to  destroy  weeds. 
As  soon  as  the  rows  appear,  intertillage  may  be  started. 
The  first  cultivation  should  be  deep,  especially  if  the 
ground  is  weedy  ;  but  as  the  vines  grow,  cultivation  should 
become  more  shallow,  and  be  kept  farther  and  farther 
from  the  rows,  so  as  not  to  destroy  the  feeding  roots. 
When  the  land  is  worked  the  last  time,  some  soil  may 
be  thrown  toward  the  plants  by  the  lateral  shovels. 
This  will  smother  some  weeds  and  increase  the  bearing 
surface. 


248  POTATOES 

185.  Harvesting.  —  Potatoes  are  harvested  by  fork,  spade, 
plow,  or  by  the  riding  digger.  As  soon  as  early  potatoes 
are  of  marketable  size  they  may  be  harvested.  For  the 
late  varieties  it  is  well  to  wait  until  the  vines  are  dead. 
The  tubers  will  then  break  off  readily  without  rubbing. 
Digging  is  best  done  when  the  soil  is  fairly  dry,  as  less 


A  Good  Potato  Crop. 

dirt  will  cling  to  the  tubers.     They  will  then  dry  off 
better,  and  hence  be  less  likely  to  rot. 

186.  Storing  and  Marketing.  —  Good  ventilation  and  a 
cool  temperature  retard  rotting.  A  common  practice  is 
to  store  potatoes  in  the  open  in  piles  covered  with  straw 
and  soil,  or  in  cellars.  Either  method  may  be  good, 
provided  the  proper  conditions  of  temperature  and 
ventilation  are  secured.  The  temperature,  however, 
should  not  be  allowed  to  fall  below  33°  F.  It  is  wise 
economy  to  use  a  thermometer  in  the  potato  room,  and, 
if  necessary,  to  run  an  oil  stove  there  during  the  coldest 
nights. 


SWEET  POTATOES 


249 


Sweet  Potatoes. 


Before  marketing,  potatoes  are  graded  as  to  size,  shape, 
second  growth,  and  color.  Two  markets  are  available,  — 
the  local  and  the  distant.  Eastern-shore  farmers  sell  their 
produce  through  selected  receivers  who  charge  about  8  per 
cent  commission.     The  receivers  pay  an  agent  3  per  cent 

for  buying  and  for  in- 
structing the  growers 
in  methods  of  grading, 
assorting,  and  packing. 
187.  Sweet  potatoes  are 
true  roots.  They  are 
grown  in  nearly  all  the 
states,  particularly  in 
the  South.  The  best 
quality  is  produced  in 
warm,  well-drained,  sandy  soils.  It  is  a  common  practice 
to  use  a  complete  fertilizer,  high  in  potash,  for  sweet 
potatoes.  The  vines  make  rapid  growth,  and  when  a  foot 
or  more  long  may  be  trimmed.  The  cuttings  so  obtained 
may  be  used  for  further  planting. 

Practical  Questions 

1.  Where  is  the  potato  belt  of  the  United  States?  2.  What  is 
meant  by  "  potato  seed "  ?  3.  Name  four  points  to  be  considered 
in  seed  selection.  4.  Explain  why  a  potato  tuber  is  not  a  root. 
5.  What  facts  are  to  be  considered  in  planting  potatoes  ?  6.  Dis- 
cuss methods  for  cultivating  and  harvesting.  7.  Name  two  condi- 
tions that  promote  rot. 

Home  Exercises 

1.  If  potatoes  are  a  leading  local  crop,  a  potato  club  should  be 
formed.  Write  to  the  State  Agricultural  College  or  to  the  Bureau  of 
Plant  Industry,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  for 
blanks  similar  to  those  spoken  of  at  the  close  of  the  last  chapter. 
An  eighth  or  a  quarter  of  an  acre  may  be  used  for  the  club  work. 
A  report  should  be  made  on  the  preparation  of  the  plat,  the  planting, 


250  POTATOES 

the  seed,  the  cultivation,  the  treatment  for  bugs  and  diseases,  and 
the  grading  and  marketing.    The  basis  of  award  should  be  as  follows : 

(1)  Yield 30  points 

(2)  Net  profit  on  investment 30  points 

(3)  Exhibit  of  produce  (fresh  and  cooked)    .    .  20  points 

(4)  Crop  report  and  story 2Q  points 

Total  score 100  points 

2.  Write  a  connected  story  on  how  your  father  handles  his  potato 
crop. 

Suggestions 

1.  Demonstrate  the  difference  in  loss  of  weight  between  a  pared 
and  an  unpared  potato.  Expose  both  the  pared  and  the  unpared, 
after  weighing,  to  the  air  of  the  schoolroom  for  a  month  and  then 
reweigh.     Explain  the  reason  for  the  difference  in  weight. 

2.  Take  two  tumblers.  Place  a  potato  in  each,  the  one  having 
the  stem  end  down,  and  the  other  the  stem  end  up.  Add  water  to 
cover  the  bottoms  of  the  potatoes  in  the  tumblers.  Is  there  any  dif- 
ference in  the  growth  of  the  sprouts?    Explain. 

3.  Cut  a  potato.  How  many  different  parts  do  you  notice?  Make 
a  thin  slice  and  hold  it  to  the  light.  Draw  the  section.  Label  outer 
bark,  inner  bark,  and  pith. 

4.  Preserve  a  scabby  potato  in  formalin,  and  dry  a  leaf  affected 
with  late  blight  between  blotters  for  a  schoolroom  specimen. 

References 

TTie  Potato.     Samuel  Frazer. 
Farmers  Bulletins.     Washington,  D.  C. 
35.   Potato  Culture. 
91.   Potato  Diseases. 
324.   Sweet  Potatoes. 
407.   The  Potato  as  a  Truck  Crop. 
533.   Grood  Seed  Potatoes  and  How  to  Grow  Them. 


CHAPTER   XIX 

CORN 


But  let  the  good  old  crop  adorn 

The  hills  our  fathers  trod; 
Still  let  us  for  his  golden  com 

Send  up  our  thanks  to  God. 

—  Whittiee. 

188.  Our  Yearly  Crop.  —  Corn  is  our  most  valuable  crop. 
P"'our  fifths  of  our  farmers  raise  it.  See  Appendix  A, 
Chart  III,  page  468.  The  yield  in  the  United  States  for 
1912  was  3,124,796,000  bushels.  This  crop  alone  enriched 
the  farmers  that  year  to  the  extent  of  81,520,454,000. 
These  figures  are  overwhelming.  Loaded  on  wagons,  a 
ton  to  each,  the  crop  would  form  a  procession  twenty 
wagons  wide  extending  around  the  globe.  As  many  drivers 
would  be  needed  in  the  procession  as  there  are  inhabitants 
in  the  United  States.  Converted  into  silver  dollars,  it 
would  take  over  four  thousand  teams,  each  hauling  a  ton, 
to  take  the  crop  to  the  bank.  The  value  would  support 
our  public  schools  for  five  years. 

189.  An  American  Plant. — In  the  Bible  we  read  how 
"Joseph's  ten  brethren  went  down  to  buy  corn  in  Egypt." 
The  Psalmist,  too,  says:  "The  valleys  are  also  covered 
over  with  corn;  They  shout  for  joy,  they  also  sing." 
But  in  these  quotations  the  word  "corn"  is  used  in  its 
old  European  sense,  referring  to  any  hard  grain,  like 
wheat,  rye,  or  barley.     Strictly  speaking,  in  the  usage  of 

261    ■ 


262  CORN 

to-day,  "  corn  "  is  maize,  and  was  unknown  to  the  people 
of  the  Old  World  until  America  was  discovered. 

The  Indians  cultivated  maize  from  Canada  to  Argen- 
tina.    In  Mexico  there  was  a  maize  goddess  whom    the 


Good  and  Bad  Seed. 

These  six  kernels  were  under  exactly  the  same  condition  in  the 

germinator. 

natives  worshiped.  The  plant  is  still  sometimes  called 
"Indian  corn."  The  Indians  taught  the  early  European 
settlers  how  to  grow  it.*    At  times  the  settlers  would  have 


1  In  hLs  "  History  of  Plimouth  Plantation  "  (Jovernor  Bradford  states  that 
the  settlers  "began  to  plant  their  come,  in  which  service  Squanto  (an 
Indian)  stood  them  in  good  stead,  showing  them  both  the  manner  how  to  set 


THE  SELECTION  OF  SEED  253 

starved,  had  it  not  been  for  this  native  plant,  and  finally 
they  gave  it  especially  the  general  name  then  in  use  for 
grain. 

190.  The  Selection  of  Seed.  —  Farmers  use  corn  for  both 
grain  and  fodder ;  and  therefore  both  stalk  and  ear  are  to 
be  considered  in  selecting  seed.  For  this  reason  it  is 
best  to  begin  the  selection  in  the  field  before  harvesting. 
Ears  should  be  preserved  only  from  those  stalks  that  have 


Class  Selecting  Seed  Corn 

ample  foliage  and  vigorous  growth,  and  that  produce  one 
good,  well-developed  ear,  two  ears  apiece,  if  two  ears  are 
customary  in  the  variety.  The  ears  should  hang  over 
somewhat  and  should  be  placed  neither  high  nor  low. 

The  points  to  be  secured  in  ear  selection  are  vitality, 
yield,  and  maturity. 


it,  and  after  how  to  dress  and  tend  it.  Also  he  told  them  axcepte  they  got 
fish  and  set  with  it  (in  these  grounds)  it  would  come  to  nothing ;  and  he 
showed  them  yt  in  ye  middle  of  Aprill,  they  should  have  store  enough  come 
up  ye  brooke  by  which  they  begane  to  build  and  taught  them  how  to  take  it." 


254  COEN 

(a)  Vitality.  A  good  germ  is  needed,  —  one  that  is 
large,  bright,  and  plump.  But  it  will  not  do  to  trust  to 
looks.  To  determine  whether  the  kernels  have  life,  a 
germination  test  should  be  made  shortly  before  planting. 
Several  inexpensive  devices  for  this  purpose  are  in  use. 

Professor  H.  D.  Hughes  of  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station  has  in- 
vented a  simple  contrivance,  which  he  calls  the  "rag  doll"  outfit. 

A  few  yards  of  good  sheeting  are  torn  in  strips,  8  inches  wide  and 
from  3  to  5  feet  long.  A  line  is  drawn  lengthwise  with  a  pencil 
through  the  middle  of  a  strip,  and  then  cross  lines  are  made  about 


The  "Rag  Doll"  Test. 

every  three  inches.     This  divides  the  cloth  into  squares,  which  are 
numbered. 

A  marked  strip  is  now  wetted  and  spread  out  before  the  ears  to  be 
tested.  Six  kernels  are  taken  from  an  ear  marked  one,  and  are 
placed  in  the  number  one  space ;  six  are  taken  from  an  ear  marked 
two,  and  are  laid  on  the  space  marked  two,  and  so  on.  The  six  ker- 
nels from  each  ear  should  be  taken  from  different  parts  of  it. 

When  the  spaces  have  all  been  used,  the  cloth  is  rolled  up  carefully. 
The  moisture  present  will  prevent  the  kernels  from  slipping  out  of 
place.  A  string  is  now  tied  loosely  around  each  end,  or  a  rubber 
band  may  be  used.  From  30  to  50  ears  can  be  tested  on  each  piece 
of  sheeting. 

When  this  part  of  the  process  has  been  completed,  the  rolls  are 
placed  in  water  from  8  to  12  hours ;  they  are  then  put  into  an  ordinary 
box  or  under  a  bucket  upside  down  for  about  five  days,  but  placed  so 
as  to  get  air. 


THE  SELECTION  OF  SEED  255 

The  cloths  are  then  unrolled,  and  the  sprouted  and  unsprouted 
grains  carefully  examined.  An  ear  is  discarded  if  all  the  six  kernels 
do  not  show  strong  germination.  The  numbers  of  ears,  of  course, 
must  be  recorded  in  some  convenient  way. 

(6)  Yield.  The  average  corn  yield  of  the  United  States 
is  nearly  30  bushels  per  acre.  A  boy  in  South  Carolina 
grew  228  bushels  of  dry  shelled  corn  to  the  acre.  It  is 
needful  to  consider,  however,  not   only  the    number   of 


Removing  Seed  for  Testing. 

bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre,  but  also  the  cost  of  producing 
them.  The  southern  boy  grew  his  corn  at  an  enormous 
expense.  A  slight  expense  will  commonly  do  much  to 
increase  the  yield. 

If  one  counts  the  stalks  in  one  hundred  hills  as  they 
come  in  an  average  cornfield,  he  will  probably  find  that 
the  stand  represents  less  than  75  per  cent  of  the  seed; 
and  if  he  subtracts  the  number  of  barren  stalks  from  his 
count,  this  per  cent  would  be  reduced  still  more.     Much 


256 


CORN 


can  be  done  to  improve  such  yields  by  seed  selection 
alone.  A  farmer  should  not  only  select  the  best  corn  in 
his  own  field  for  seed,  but  should  also  get  into  touch  with 
corn  breeders'  organizations,  his  Experiment  Station,  and 


Box  Method  of  Testing  Seed. 


the  best  corn  growers  in  the  neighborhood.  A  pint  of 
high-yielding  seed  corn,  secured  from  any  of  these  sources, 
may  yield  such  an  increase  in  bushels  per  acre  in  a  few 
years  as  to  pay  all  the  farm  taxes. 

(<;)    Maturity.     Early   maturity   will   permit  thorough 
drying-out  before  freezing  weather  arrives.     The  moisture 


THE  ''EAR-TO-BOW''   EXPERIMENT  257 

should  have  time  to  evaporate  from  the  ear  before  it  is 
stored.  Otherwise,  molds  may  develop  and  the  germs 
be  killed.  Seed  corn,  therefore,  should  not  be  soft  and 
spongy  on  the  cob. 

191.  The  "Ear-to-Row"  Experiment.  —  When  ears  of  seed 
corn  have  been  selected  as  described  above,  if  the  seed 
tests  well,  it  ought  to  produce  a  stand  much  above  the 
average,  and,  by  following  up  the  process  for  a  few  years, 
marked  gains  should  be  secured.     But  it  is  possible,  at  no 


Starting  a  Corn  Variety  Test. 

great  expense  of  time  and  labor,  to  carry  the  selection  a 
step  further  —  by  the  "  ear-to-row  "  method. 

For  this,  the  farmer  must  have  a  special  seed  plot.  A 
certain  number  of  the  most  promising  seed  ears  are 
selected,  one  or  two  hundred.  These  are  numbered. 
Then  the  seed  of  No.  1  is  planted  in  row  No.  1 ;  the  seed 
of  ear  2  in  row  2 ;  and  so  on.  The  ears  probably  all 
promised  well  and  looked  much  alike ;  but  the  rows  will 
probably  show  an  amazing  difference  in  productivity. 
Some  rows  may  produce  two  or  even  four  times  as  much 
corn  as  other  rows.     Seed  for  the  next  year  will  be  selected 


258 


CORN 


from  the  best  rows,  and  tlie  experiment  may  then  be  re- 
peated. Soon  the  whole  crop  will  come  from  high-produc- 
ing ears. 

192.  Kinds  of  Corn.  —  Dent  Com  is  the  sort  most  exten- 
sively grown  in  the  United  States.  It  derives  its  name 
from  a  depression  or  "  dent "  in  the  grain  due  to  drying. 


Six  Types  of  Corn. 
Pop,  pod,  soft,  sweet,  dent,  flint. 

Flint  Com  is  smooth,  yellowish,  reddish,  or  white  in 
color.  The  cob  is  large  and  slender,  bearing  8,  10,  or  12 
rows.  It  matures  early,  and  is  grown  mostly  in  New 
England  and  Canada. 

Pop  Com  is  grown  widely  but  sparsely.  Its  inclosed 
moisture  expands,  when  highly  heated,  turning  the  broken 
and  enlarged  contents  inside  out. 

Sweet  Com  is  grown  mostly  for  table  use  on  the  ear  and 
for  canning.     When  dry,  it  presents  a  shriveled  appearance. 


CULTURE  269 

Pod  Corn  is  supposed  to  be  the  most  primitive  type  of 
corn.  However  this  may  be,  it  is  certainly  an  interesting 
type,  althougli  not  common.  Each  kernel  is  inclosed  in  a 
pod  which  resembles  the  husks  surrounding  the  entire  ear. 
It  is  interesting  also  to  note  that  occasionally  we  may  find 
a  few  podded  grains  on  our  common  corn,  which  fact 
suggests  a  reversion  to  the  pod  or  earlier  type.  Pod 
corn  is  thought  to  have  originated  in  Argentina,  South 
America. 

Soft  Corn  is  characterized  by  the  entire  absence  of  horny 
endosperm  (the  part  outside  the  germ).  Like  pod  corn 
it  is  mostly  a  curiosity  with  us.  However,  it  is  grown 
somewhat  in  Chili  and  Peru. 

193.  Culture.  —  After  the  seed  corn  and  its  variety  have 
been  selected,  the  work  of  the  season  runs  on  from  prepar- 
ing the  seed  bed  to  harvesting. 

We  must  not  forget  that  corn  is  a  tropical  plant  and 
that  the  seed  should  not  be  planted  before  the  soil  is 
warm. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  soil,  the  increase  of  its  water- 
holding  capacity  and  its  available  food  supply  are  the 
objects  desired.  The  soil  particles  should  be  made  fine, 
to  enable  the  root  hairs  to  absorb  nourishment  readily. 
Late  fall  or  early  spring  plowing  of  sod  is  the  best  farm 
practice.  The  plowing  should  be  deep.  One  to  two 
inches  is  the  average  depth  for  planting  the  kernels. 
This  will  enable  them  to  get  the  benefit  both  of  the 
warm  surface  layer  and  the  interior  moisture. 

As  soon  as  weeds  appear,  which  may  be  in  a  few  days 
after  planting,  a  weeder  or  cultivator  is  run  over  the 
ground  to  kill  them,  and  also  to  let  air  into  the  soil,  and 
to  prevent  the  loss  of  moisture.  Shallow  cultivation  is 
best.  Later  in  the  season,  when  the  stalks  are  a  foot  or 
two  high,  the  feeding  roots  spread  widely,  and  only  the 


260 


CORN 


finer  cultivator  teeth  should  be  used  for  the  shallow  cul- 
tivation and  for  securing  the  least  soil  mulch. 

194.  Judging.  —  The  "judging"  of  corn  is  for  the  sake 
of  comparing  different  seed  ears  of  a  given  variety,  in 
order  to  determine  their  relative  value  as  seed.  Beginners 
generally  use  a  "  score  card  "  for  this  purpose.     The  table 


It'  '■ 

k&mm 

i 

1 

wmm 

1 

1 

Result  of  Not  Testing  Seed. 

Had  these  boys  tested  their  seed,  they  would  have  had  six  healthy 
plants  in  the  place  shown  instead  of  five. 


on  the  following  page  is  an  example  of  a  score  card  for 
dent  corn. 

A  little  explanation  may  make  it  easier  to  use  the  fol- 
lowing card.  Usually,  ten  ears  are  placed  side  by  side  on 
a  table,  the  tips  pointing  in  the  same  direction.  In  ex- 
hibits the  ears  should  be  laid  together,  so  as  to  give  them 
an  even  and  uniform  appearance,  the  best  ears  being  to 
the  left.  The  terms  used  in  the  score  card  may  be  ex- 
plained briefly. 


JUDGING 


261 


SOOBE  OF 

Samples 


(1)  Trueness  to  type  or  breed  characteristics  . 

(2)  Shape  of  ear 

(3)  Color :  (a)  grain 

(4) 

(5) 
(6) 
(7) 
(8) 

(9) 
(10) 

(11) 


(6)  cob 

Market  conditions 

Tips 

Butts 

Kernels  :  (o)  uniformity  of 

{h)  shape  of 

Length  of  ear 

Circumference  of  ear 

(12)  Space  :  (a)  furrow  between  rows    .     .     . 

(13)  (6)  space  between  kernels  at  cob 

(14)  Percentage  of  corn 

Total 

Cuts  for  general  defects     .... 
Final  score 


63    65 

5      0 

58    65 


Name 


(1)  Trueness  to  type.  A  mental  picture  of  a  perfect  ear 
must  be  kept  in  mind.  Mark  down  the  per  cent  of  the 
ears  judged,  if  they  vary  from  this  in  form  of  kernel,  shape, 
color,  and  indentation.  Ten  points  are  allowed  if  the  ear 
is  perfect.  To  the  first  sample  in  the  card  above,  only 
six  points  were  given,  and  to  the  second,  none.  These 
two  ears,  then,  were  imperfect,  as  regards  trueness  to  type. 
The  second  departed  too  widely  from  the  type  to  merit  a 
single  point. 

(2)  Shape  of  ear.  Ears  should  be  nearly  cylindrical,  not 
crooked  or  tapering. 

(3)  The  color  of  grain  should  be  uniform. 

(4)  The  color  of  cob  should  be  cherry  red  for  yellow 
corn,  and  glistening  white  for  white  corn. 


262  CORN 

(5)  Market  condition:  Corn  should  be  mature,  sound, 
solid,  and  free  from  injury  or  decayed  spots. 

(6)  The  tip  of  the  ear  should  be  filled  out  to  the  end, 
or  completely  covered. 

(7)  Butts.  Kernels  should  run  up  evenly  to  the  shank 
in  regular  rows.     The  cavity  should  be  clean  and  concave. 

(8)  Kernels :  Uniformity.  The  kernels  must  not  only 
conform  to  an  ideal  standard,  but  be  uniform  among  them- 
selves in  shape  and  color. 

(9)  Kernels :  Shape.  Kernels  should  be  wedge-shaped, 
but  not  pointed.  The  length  of  each  grain  should  be  about 
one  and  one  half  times  its  greatest  width. 

(10)  Length  of  ear  should  correspond  to  the  standard 
selected. 

(11)  Circumference  of  the  ear,  one  third  the  way  up 
from  the  butt,  should  be  three  fourths  the  length  of  the 
ear. 

(12)  Space  (a)  refers  to  space  between  rows.  Furrows 
should  be  straight  and  uniformly  narrow,  but  not  closed. 

(13)  Space  (J)  refers  to  space  between  kernels  close  to 
the  cob.     The  grains  at  the  tip  should  touch  one  another. 

(14)  Percentage  of  com.  Well-matured  corn  shells  85 
pounds  of  corn  to  15  pounds  of  cobs.  The  cob,  however, 
should  be  of  medium  size.  As  its  size  becomes  smaller 
the  number  of  rows  on  it  decreases.  Chaffy  and  immature 
cobs  indicate  a  low  percentage  of  grain. 

Practical  Questions 

1.  What  is  the  size  of  our  corn  crop?  2.  What  is  meant  by  the 
word  com  t  3.  Where  would  you  begin  in  the  selection  of  seed 
corn?  4.  What  is  meant  by  the  term  vitality  f  5.  How  can  the 
com  yield  per  acre  be  increased?  6.  Name  and  describe  three  kinds 
of  corn.  7.  What  are  some  of  the  points  to  be  considered  in  corn 
culture  ?      8.  Of  what  value  is  a  score  card  for  corn  ? 


SUGGESTIONS  263 

Home  Exkrcises 

1.  Start  or  maintain  a  corn  club.  No  crop  lends  itself  more 
readily  to  club  work  than  corn  does.  Send  to  Washington  for 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  415,  on  "Seed  Corn";  Farmers'  Bulletin  No. 
617  on  "School  Lessons  on  Corn  "also;  circular  No.  104,  on  "Spe- 
cial Contests  for  Corn  Club  Work,"  and  for  the  circular  entitled, 
"  Organization  and  Instruction  in  Boys'  Corn  Club  Work."  With 
the  aid  of  the  County  Agent,  of  the  Superintendent  of  Schools,  or  of 
the  local  teacher,  the  club  should  easily  be  organized.  The  basis  of 
award  in  corn  club  work  may  be  : 

(1)  Greatest  yield  per  acre 30  points 

(2)  Best  showing  of  profit  on  investment     ...     30  points 

(3)  Best  exhibit  of  ten  ears  at  county,  district,  or 

state  fair 20  points 

(4)  Crop  report  record  and  story  of  club  work      .  _20  points 

Total  Score 100  points 

2.  In  addition  to  the  corn  club  work  many  simple  and  original 
experiments  can  be  worked  out  at  home. 

In  early  fall  a  pupil  may  determine  the  number  of  bushels  of  corn 
to  the  acre  on  his  home  farm  as  follows  :  Along  the  edge  of  a  corn  field, 
by  pacing,  or  using  a  string,  measure  off  209  feet,  the  length  of  a  side 
of  a  square  acre.  Then  measure  the  same  distance  on  the  adjoining 
side  of  the  corn  field.  Count  the  rows  included  in  this  distance,  and 
the  average  number  of  ears  in  three  rows.  Fill  a  bushel  measure  with 
unshelled  corn,  then  count  the  ears,  and  assume  that  it  takes  two 
bushels  of  corn  on  the  ear  to  make  one  that  is  shelled.  Estimate  the 
number  of  bushels  per  acre  from  these  figures.  See  how  nearly  your 
estimate  holds  out  when  the  crop  is  harvested. 

Suggestions 

1.  Demonstrations  made  directly  on  the  corn  plant  in  the  school- 
room make  the  subject  real.  Gather  some  tassels  before  the  pollen 
has  fallen ;  place  them  on  a  dark  paper,  and  in  an  hour  or  two  the 
pollen  bags  will  have  discharged  their  contents.  These  pollen  grains 
can  readily  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye.  Blow  on  the  paper  to  see 
how  easily  they  float  in  the  air. 

2.  Remove  the  husks  from  an  ear  as  the  silk  is  coming  out. 
Follow  each  silken  thread  to  the  grain  that  produced  it.     Are  there 


264  CORN 

as  many  silks  as  grains?  Which  silks  came  out  first,  —  those  from 
the  butt  or  those  from  the  tip  of  the  ear?  The  silk  catches  the 
pollen.  Can  you  see  any  tiny  hairs  on  it  near  the  tip?  Is  it  sticky? 
Why? 

3.  Score  a  ten-ear  exhibit  Send  to  your  college  of  Agriculture 
for  the  score  card  for  your  state.  Full  explanations  will  be  given. 
Remember  that  we  are  not  merely  studying  a  textbook,  but  a  sub- 
ject. Agriculture  is  an  informal  subject.  Arrange  for  a  Corn  Show 
and  a  Corn  Festival. 

4.  It  is  well  to  try  an  **  ear-to-row  "  experiment  with  corn,  either 
in  the  school  garden  or  at  the  homes  of  some  of  the  pupils. 

5.  A  corn  variety  test  also,  under  the  direction  of  the  County 
Agent  or  Agriculturist,  is  an  instructive  piece  of  work  to  follow. 
When  the  best  variety  has  been  studied  by  the  variety  test  see  that 
a  specimen  of  it  is  brought  to  school. 

References 

Com  Plants.     Sargent. 

Corn.     Montgomery. 

Sweet  Corn.     A.  E.  Wilkinson. 

Farmers'  Bulletins.     Washington,  D.C. 

253.  The  Germination  of  Seed  Com. 

313.  Harvesting  and  Storing  Com. 

414.  Corn  Cultivation. 

499.  Corn  Growing. 

537.  How  to  Grow  an  Acre  of  Corn. 


CHAPTER  XX 
SMALL  GEAIN  OEOFS 


Except  a  corn  of  wheat  fall  into  the  ground  and  die,  it  abideth 
alone ;  hut  if  it  die,  it  hringeth  forth  much  fruit.  — St.  John  xU.  24. 


195.  Wheat  is  our  leading  small  grain.  Like  all  the 
other  small  grains,  and  like  corn  also,  it  is  a  cultivated 
grass.  The  Chinese  records  show  that  people  cultivated 
wheat  as  far  back  as  2700 
B.C.  It  was  known  to 
the  Lake  Dwellers  of 
Switzerland  in  the  Stone 
Age,  perhaps  50,000 
years  ago.  No  one,  of 
course,  knows  much 
about  the  antiquity  of 
wheat.  Not  even  the 
name  of  the  country  in 
which  it  was  first  grown 
is  known  with  certainty. 
It  is  probable  that  it 
originated  in  the  fertile 
valley  of  the  Euphrates. 

Wheat  is  now  grown 
in  every  civilized  coun- 
try.    Since   the   invention   of  the   reaper,  however,   the 
number    of    acres    devoted   to    wheat    culture    has    been 

265 


Wheat  Grains. 

The  divisions  in  the  ruler  are  ^  of  an 
inch. 


266  SMALL   GRAIN  CROPS 

iucreasing  by  leaps  and  bounds.  The  reason  for  this  lies 
in  the  fact  tiiat  the  wheat  grains  drop  from  the  heads  and 
are  lost  unless  harvested  within  a  week  or  two  after  ripen- 
ing. The  number  of  acres  to  sow  depends  largely  on  the 
ability  of  the  laborers  to  harvest  the  crop.  The  reaper 
has  multiplied  this  ability  many  fold,  and  so  has  made 
possible  a  vast  increase  in  wheat  acreage.     One  man  with 


^^ 

^^ 

fr^ 

HhI- 

mk 

■ 

m 

mf'i- 

Threshing  Wheat. 

a  reaper  is  able  to  harvest  as  much  grain  as  many  men  by 
the  older  methods.     See  Appendix  A,  Chart  I,  page  467. 

Wheat  is  a  human  food,  not  a  stock  food.  Not  that  it 
is  not  good  for  the  stock ;  but  man  has  learned  to 
esteem  it  too  highly  to  leave  any  of  it  to  lower  animals. 
Bread  made  from  rye,  barley,  or  millet  differs  very 
little  in  nourishing  qualities  from  that  made  from  wheat ; 
but  wheat  bread  is  whiter  in  color,  more  nutritious  and 
more  attractive. 

It  is  interesting  to  know  that  farmers  are  harvesting 
wheat  somewhere  during  every  month  of  the  year.  The 
list  below  names  a  harvesting  country  for  each  month  : 


TYPES   OF.   WHEAT  267 

in  January,  Australia  harvests; 

in  February,  Egypt ; 

in  March,  India; 

in  April,  Mexico ; 

in  May,  Central  Asia ; 

in  June,  Italy ; 

in  July,  the  United  States ; 

in  August,  Canada ; 

in  September,  Scotland ; 

in  October,  Norway ; 

in  November,  Peru  ;  , 

in  December,  Argentina. 

196.  Seed  selection  is  important.  As  in  the  case  of  corn, 
the  peculiarities  of  the  wheat  plants  in  the  field  are  valu- 
able points  to  consider  in  selecting  seed.  Look  at  the 
straw  to  see  whether  it  is  stiif  or  has  a  tendency  to  fall 
down ;  whether  there  is  considerable  rust  present,  or  in- 
sect damage ;  whether  there  is  uniformity  in  height,  and 
in  time  of  ripening;  whether  the  heads  are  compact,  so 
as  to  retain  the  grain  well.  Notice  also  the  presence  or 
absence  of  weeds  in  the  field. 

When  the  seed  has  been  selected  and  thrashed,  it  is 
well  to  winnow  out  the  weed  seeds  carefully,  and  also 
the  small  wheat  grains.  This  will  leave  for  seed  only  the 
plumpest  and  most  shapely  kernels,  and  will  increase  the 
crop  the  following  year. 

197.  Types  of  Wheat.  —  Wheat  is  of  two  general  types. 
Wintei'  wheat  is  sown  in  the  fall.  Spring  wheat  is  sown 
in  the  spring.    Under  each  type  three  varieties  are  noted : 

Winter  Wheat 

1.  Soft 

2.  Semi-hard 

3.  Hard 


268  SMALL  GRAIN  CROPS 

Spring  Wheat 

1.  Soft 

2.  Hard 

'  3.    Macaroni,  or  durum 

Wheat  grown  in  moist  regions  is  soft,  and  that  grown 
in  dry  regions  is  hard.  The  best  flour  is  made  from  hard 
wheat.  The  macaroni  wheat  is  a  variety  whose  seed  was 
recently  introduced  into  the  United  States  from  the  dry 


A  Wheat  Variety  Test. 

lands  of  Russia.  It  is  now  extensively  grown  in  the 
semi-arid  regions  of  the  southwest.  It  is  the  hardest  of 
all  the  wheats. 

198.  Cnltnre.  —  A  rich  soil  is  necessary  for  a  good  stand 
of  wheat.  Plenty  of  humus  is  desirable.  This  is  why  in 
the  early  days  the  virgin  soils  of  our  country  were  so 
profitable  for  wheat  raising. 

The  soil  must  also  be  prepared  carefully  before  plant- 
ing. In  corn  culture,  cultivators  are  used  after  planting 
the  seed;  but  this   is  not   possible  with  wheat,  and   so 


CULTURE  269 

special  care  must  be  given  to  the  soil  before  seeding,  in 
order  to  have  it  well  fined  and  free  of  weeds. 

Before  machines  were  invented  for  drilling  in  the  wheat, 
it  was  sown  broadcast,  and  this  method  is  used  by  some 
farmers  to  this  day.  But  broadcasting  (which  is  simply 
throwing  tlie  grain  around  by  hand)  is  very  wasteful. 
Its  wastefulness  points  the  moral  to  a  well-known  parable 


Oats  —  Natural  Size. 

in  the  Bible.  According  to  the  parable  some  good  seed 
fell  on  shallow  ground,  some  on  stony  ground,  and  only  a 
part  fell  on  good  ground. 

In  order  to  sprout  well  and  to  produce  a  thrifty  growth 
afterwards,  the  grain  should  be  planted  from  one  to  two 
inches  deep.  The  drill  can  be  set  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  secure  not  only  the  proper  depth  for  the  seed  to  grow 
best,  but  to  make  the  amount  of  seed  planted  in  a  given 
space  equal  to  that  planted  in  any  other  equal  space. 
This  cannot  be  done  by  broadcasting,  no  matter  how 
carefully  the  seed  is  afterward  harrowed  in.     Some  seeds 


270 


SMALL   GRAIN  CROPS 


will  lie  on  the  surface  for  "  the  fowls  of  the  air  "  to  pick 
up;  others  may  be  covered  too  deeply,  and  not  sprout 
well.  Then,  too,  the  little  furrows  made  by  the  di-ill,  if 
extending  east  and  west,  will  protect  the  roots  somewhat 
from  the  effects  of  thawing  and  freezing,  each  east-to- 
west  row  being  shaded  sufficiently  to  prevent  frequent 
thawing. 

199.    Gathering  the  Harvest.  —  A  field  of  golden  grain 
ready   for   the   harvest  is  a  sight  to  inspire  a  poet.     A 


Oats  as  Planted  in  Drills. 

practical  farmer  may  draw  the  same  joy  from  the  sight, 
but  he  will  wish  also  to  know  whether  the  grain  is  get- 
ting too  ripe.  It  is  important  to  know  the  earliest  mo- 
ment when  the  grain  can  be  cut  so  as  to  avoid  scattering. 
When  the  stalks  are  beginning  to  have  a  rich,  golden 
hue,  and  while  the  grains  are  yet  soft  enough  to  crush 
between  the  fingers,  the  harvest  time  is  aU  hand.  How- 
ever, if  the  thrashing  and  cutting  is  done  cU  one  time 
by  what  is  called  a  combination  harvester  and  thrasher 


OATS 


271 


drawn  by  an  engine  or  many  horses,  the  grain  should  be 
left  to  become  fully  ripe  and  hard  before  cutting.  The 
riper  the  grain,  the 
easier  it  will  shell 
out. 

200.  Oats.  —  If  we 
examine  the  crop  sta- 
tistics for  the  United 
States,  we  shall  find 
that  in  number  of 
bushels  corn  stands 
first,  oats  second,  and 
wheat  third;  and  the 
order  for  the  money 

value  of  these  crops  is 

,  ,  Buckwheat — -Natural  Size. 

corn,  wheat,  and  oats. 

The  grain  of  the  oat  plant  is  used  chiefly  as  a  food  for 

horses   and   to   make   a   preparation   known   as   oatmeal. 


Buckwheat  Planted  in  Drills. 


For  many  years  oatmeal  has  been  a  popular  breakfast 
cereal.  It  is  one  of  the  cheapest  sources  of  protein,  a 
tissue-building  food. 


272 


SMALL   GRAIN  CROPS 


The  oat  plant  does  not  thrive  well  in  warm  climates, 
but  its  yield  gradually  increases  from  eighteen  bushels 
in  our  southern  states  to  fifty  or  seventy-five  in  the 
northern  states.  In  Canada,  Montana,  and  North  Dakota 
it  is  not  uncommon  for  the  yield  to  exceed  one  hundred 
bushels  per  acre.     See  Appendix  A,  Chart  II,  page  467. 

The  Experiment  Stations  of  Minnesota,  Ohio,  and 
Kansas  have  been  giving  considerable  attention  to  oats  in 

the  hope  of  improving 
the  yield  and  quality. 
They  have  found  that 
large,  heavy  seeds  pro- 
duce better  yields  and 
a  better  quality  of  grain 
than  the  lighter  and 
smaller  seeds.  They 
have  also  found  that 
drilling  gives  better  re- 
sults than  broadcasting, 
and  that  there  is  a 
marked  difference  in  the 
difi'erent  varieties  of  oats 
in  respect  to  resistance 
to  disease  and  drought. 
Some  farmers  do  not  consider  oats  a  profitable  crop. 
This  may  be  true  under  certain  conditions.  A  low 
estimate  of  the  cost  of  raising  and  harvesting  an  acre  of 
oats,  including  the  rent  of  the  land  and  the  thrashing 
bill,  is  ten  dollars.  A  yield  of  twenty  bushels  at  forty 
cents  a  bushel  would  mean  a  gross  income  of  only  eight 
dollars,  or  a  loss  of  two  dollars  per  acre.  This,  of  course, 
would  not  be  good  farming.  A  yield  of  fifty  bushels, 
on  the  other  hand,  would  give  a  profit  of  about  ten 
dollars. 


Barley  Grains. 

Compare  these  in  size  and  appearance 
with  wheat,  oats,  and  rye. 


BARLEY  AND  RYE 


273 


Oats  are  planted  very  early  in  the  spring,  and  they 
are  harvested  after  wheat  and  before  corn.  In  this  way 
work  on  the  oat  crop  aids  in  filling  in  the  time  of  farm 
labor.  This  is  an  important  consideration,  and  together 
with  the  high  food  value  of  the  crop,  it  makes  the  grow- 
ing of  oats,  on  the  whole, 
very  popular. 

201 .  Barley  and  Rye .  — 
In  the  number  of  bushels 
of  the  leading  cereals 
grown  by  American 
farmers,  barley  follows 
oats  and  rye  follows  bar- 
ley. Barley  and  rye  are 
raised  more  extensively 
in  Europe  than  in  the 
United  States.  For  many 
centuries  barley  was  the 
chief  bread-plant  of  the 
world.  This  was  true, 
even  as  late  as  the  six- 
teenth century.  It  is 
now  largely  used  in  the 
making  of  malt  for  the  manufacture  of  beer.  In  general 
appearance  and  habit  of  growth  barley  resembles  wheat, 
but  it  is  somewhat  shorter,  and  its  heads  are  more  often 
"  bearded  "  with  needle-like  appendages.  These  append- 
ages make  the  handling  of  the  barley  crop  annoying,  and 
for  this  reason  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture has  undertaken  to  "  breed  off  "  the  needles.  The 
new  beardless  variety  will  probably  soon  take  the  place 
of  the  older  varieties. 

Russia  produces  one  half  of  the  world's  rye  crop.     In 
its  general  features  rye  resembles  wheat.     It  is,  however, 


Rye  Grains. 

The  divisions  in  the  ruler  are  ^^  of  an 

inch. 


274  SMALL   GRAIN  CROPS 

considerably  taller,  and  lighter  in  color,  and  it  produces  a 
smaller  grain.  Rye  straw  is  extensively  used  for  the 
making  of  baskets,  fans,  boxes,  mats,  and  paper.  Little 
attention  has  been  given  to  improving  rye.  Naturally 
hardy  and  vigorous,  rye  is  much  grown  as  a  cover  crop 
and  as  a  winter  pasture.  In  these  cases  the  grain  is  not 
allowed  to  mature. 

Practical  Questions 

1.  What  can  you  tell  about  the  history  of  wheat?  2.  What 
qualities  does  wheat  possess  which  make  it  a  desirable  human  food  ? 
3.  Can  you  tell  why  wheat  can  be  harvested  somewhere  during 
every  month  of  the  year?  4.  How  should  seed  wheat  be  selected? 
5.  Explain  the  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  for  wheat.  6.  Describe 
the  raising  of  oats.  7.  In  what  ways  do  barley  and  rye  differ  from 
wheat  ? 

Home  Exercises 

1.  Determine  whether  the  growing  of  wheat  is  as  profitable  to 
your  father  as  the  growing  of  corn.  Include  every  possible  item,  — 
as  cost  of  seed,  fertilizer,  and  harvesting.  If  you  discover,  for  in- 
stance, that  wheat  is  the  better  money  crop,  would  it  be  advisable  to 
increase  the  wheat  acreage  at  the  expense  of  the  corn  acreage  ? 

2.  Gather  up  all  the  home  data  you  can  on  the  culture  of  any  one 
of  the  small  grains.  Start  with  the  selection  of  the  seed  and  carry 
the  work  through  to  the  point  where  the  grain  is  taken  to  the  mill. 
Write  a  concise,  logical,  and  complete  account  of  this  work  in  your 
school  notebook. 

3.  What  insect  and  fungus  pests  have  reduced  the  profits  on 
small  gfrains  in  your  region? 

Suggestions 

1.  The  small  grains  lend  themselves  very  acceptably  to  school- 
room exercises.  Supply  each  member  of  the  class  with  several  heads 
of  wheat.  Count  the  grains  in  each  head.  In  what  part  of  the  head 
do  you  find  the  best  grains  ?  How  are  the  grains  supported  on  the 
head?  Can  you  separate  all  the  parts  of  one  flower?  Can  you  find 
the  names  of  each  part?     Are  the  wheat  flowers  "perfect?"     If  this 


REFERENCES  275 

work  can  not  be  done  on  fresh  material,  heads  must  be  collected  and 
be  preserved  in  mice-proof  boxes.  If  there  should  be  an  increase  of 
a  single  grain  in  every  wheat  head  in  a  ten-acre  field,  how  much 
money  would  that  increase  mean  ? 

2.  Throw  a  few  of  any  one  of  these  common  grains  in  the  fire  and 
watch  them  through  a  thick  blue  glass  as  they  burn  away.  You 
will  notice  a  beautiful  lavender  flame  due  to  the  potash  present  in 
the  grain.  You  will  find  more  potash  in  the  bran  than  in  the  white 
part.  Burn  a  little  bran  and  white  flour.  Note  the  intensity  of 
color  produced  by  each.  Explain  that  we  need  mineral  matter  and 
that  whole  wheat  bread  is,  for  this  reason  among  others,  often  pre- 
ferred to  white  bread. 

3.  Correlate  the  study  of  grains  with  geography,  history,  botany, 
and  arithmetic.  Formerly,  grains  of  wheat  were  used  as  a  measure 
of  weight.  These  grains  were  selected  from  the  middle  of  the  head 
and  well  dried.  Do  .5760  of  these  grains  equal  a  pound  Troy?  Do 
7000  of  them  equal  a  pound  Avoirdupois?  Verify  as  a  class  exercise. 
It  might  be  well  to  have  the  smaller  pupils  count  out  this  number  as 
an  exercise  in  number  work,  the  weighing  being  done  by  the  stu- 
dents of  Agriculture. 

References 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture.     Bailey. 
Cereals  in  America.     T.  F.  Hunt. 
Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America.     T.  F.  Hunt. 
Farmers'  Bulletins.     Washington,  D.  C. 

420.   Oats :  Distribution  and  Uses. 

424.   Oats :  Growing  the  Crop. 

443.   Barley :  Growing  the  Crop. 

534.   Durum  Wheat. 

616.   Winter  Wheat  Varieties  for  the  Eastern  United  States. 

678.   Growing  Hard  Spring  Wheat. 


CHAPTER   XXI 
rORAGE  OEOPS 


To-morrrow  to  fresh  woods  and  pastures  new,  — Hivtov. 


202.   What  is  Forage?  —  In   the   last   chapter  we    have 
studied  about  certain  crops  which  are  raised  mostly  for 
^ their    grain     or     seeds. 


Cutting  Forage. 


We  will  now  take  up  a 
few  plants  whose  stems 
and  leaves  are  especially 
valuable  to  farmers. 
The  stems  and  leaves  of 
nearly  all  farm  and  gar- 
den plants  except  celery, 
rhubarb,  lettuce,  and 
turnips  are  fibrous  and 
coarse,  and  are  not  rel- 
ished as  human  food. 
But  animals  have  stronger  powers  of  digestion  than  men, 
and  they  are  very  fond  of  the  stems  and  leaves  of  many 
coarse  plants.  These  plants  are  called  forage  plants,  or 
merely /ora<7^. 

203.  Kinds  of  Forage.  —  If  forage  is  gathered  fresh  by 
animals  themselves,  as  in  grazing,  it  is  called  pasture.  If 
cut  and  allowed  to  cure  or  dry,  it  is  known  as  Aay,  straw., 
fodder.,  or  stover.  If  cut  and  fed  green,  without  curing,  it 
is  known  as  a  soiling  crop.     If  stored  in  silos  while  still 

276 


KIJVDS  OF  FORAGE 


277 


A  Typical     Meadow. 


Hay  Tedder  at  Work. 
The  tedder  hastens  curing  by  raising  and  loosening  the  hay. 


278 


FORAGE  CROPS 


fresh  and  green,  so  as  to  keep  in  this  state,  it  is  called 
8ila(/e. 

204.  Pasture.  —  Much  of  our  land  is  not  farmed,  because 
it  is  too  hilly,  too  wet,  or  too  rough  to  cultivate.  Such 
lands,  nevertheless,  may  be  used  for  pasturage  and  may 
provide  a  cheap  means  of  maintaining  animals.  Wet 
pasture  lands  are  known  as  meadows.  Meadows  usually 
require  little  attention.  In  most  districts  they  will  pro- 
duce two  crops  of  hay 


each  season,  or  they 
should  provide  a  perma- 
nent pasture  through- 
out the  summer.  It  is 
necessary  to  fence  them 
if  they  are  to  be  used  as 
a  permanent  pasture. 
In  the  meadow  we  often 
find  a  fine  quality  of 
grass  nourished  by  un- 
failing springs  or 
creeks.  The  abun- 
dance of  accessible  water 
with  rapidly  growing 
and  nourishing  grasses 
makes  meadows  well-nigh  ideal  pasture  grounds.  In  time, 
however,  such  pastures  may  be  cut  up  badly  in  wet  places 
by  the  cattle,  and  the  nourishing  grasses  may  be  displaced 
by  coarser  varieties  or  weeds.  It  is  then  a  good  practice, 
when  the  soil  is  in  proper  condition,  to  plow  and  fertilize 
the  meadow  and  start  a  new  pasturage. 

It  is  often  possible  to  reenforce  the  regular  pastures 
from  other  sources.  Thus,  after  a  crop  has  been  har- 
vested, the  field  may  sometimes  profitably  be  thrown  open 
for  the  cattle  to  glean  what  has  been  left  along  the  fences. 


Red  Top. 


EAT 


279 


around  the  trees,  and  in  the  open.  The  wood  lot  also  may 
contain  some  suitable  pasture  plants,  and  if  it  adjoins  a 
meadow,  it  is  convenient  for  use  by  the  cattle. 

205.  Hay.  —  In  value  our  hay  crop  ranks  second  only  to 
corn.     For  the  last  fifty  years  in  the  United  States  there 


Timothy  Seed. 

has  been  a  slight  but  gradual  increase  in  hay  tonnage,  in 
cash  value,  and  in  the  average  yield  per  acre.  We  now 
produce  about  a  ton  and  a  half  of  hay  to  the  acre.  See 
Appendix  A,  Chart  V,  page  469. 

Hay  18  any  crop  cut  and  dried  for  feed.  Fodder,  the 
cured  stalks  of  corn,  is  a  coarse  form  of  hay.  Grasses, 
however,  because  they  are  readily  cured,  furnish  most  of 
our  hay,  although  the  clovers,  alfalfa,  and  cow  peas,  which 
are  not  really  grasses,  form  a  large  part  of  the  crop. 


280 


FORAGE  CROPS 


206.  Timothy  ranks  first  among  hay  plants.  For  years, 
either  unmixed  or  mixed  with  clover,  it  has  found  a  ready 
market  in  cities  at  high  prices.  It  is  adapted  to  various 
soils  and  is  easily  grown.  It  lives  longer  than  two  years, 
though  after  three  or  four  it  usually  runs  out  rapidly. 

207.  Kentucky  blue  grass,  so  called  because  of  the  peculiar 
richness  of  its  color,  is  unexcelled  for  lawns,  pastures,  and 
hay.  It  attains  its  best  growth  in  sections  rich  in  lime- 
stone, notably  in  the 
"  blue-grass  "  regions 
of  Kentucky.  As  a 
pasture,  it  seems  to 
improve  with  age. 
It  needs  several  years 
to  get  a  good  sod; 
but,  once  established, 
some  blue-grass  pas- 
tures have  supported 
grazing  animals  suc- 
cessfully for  over  fifty 
years,  and  have  not 
run  out. 


Seed  of  Kentucky  Blue  Grass. 
Larger  bodies  are  chaff. 

208.  Alfalfa.  —  It  has  been  said  that  in  America  corn  is 
king,  and  alfalfa,  queen.  As  a  forage  plant,  alfalfa  was 
grown  in  Europe  before  the  Christian  era.  Its  merits, 
however,  have  only  lately  appealed  to  American  farmers. 
Over  2,000,000  acres  are  now  devoted  to  its  growth.  See 
Appendix  A,  Chart  VI,  page  469. 

Alfalfa  will  not  succeed  well  if  the  soil  is  not  sweet, 
porous,  and  well  drained.  It  is  very  sensitive  to  soil 
acids,  and  most  of  the  eastern  soils  need  liming  for  good 
results  with  alfalfa.  Nor  can  alfalfa  be  pastured  heavily, 
and  not  at  all  the  first  year.  When  young,  it  is  very  ten- 
der, and  it  does  not  thrive  well  if  sown  with  other  plants. 


ALFALFA 


281 


The  common  causes  of  failure  to  get  a  good  alfalfa  stand 
are :  (1)  seed  is  not  sown  at  right  time ;  (2)  the  soil  is 
too  weedy  ;  (3)  the  plants  winter  kill ;  (4)  the  soil  lacks 
lime ;  (5)  the  soil  is  poorly  drained ;  (6)  there  has  been 
no  "  inoculation  "  with  alfalfa  bacteria. 

Alfalfa  roots  break  readily  during  freezing  and  thawing 
weather.  In  certain  sections  this  trouble  is  the  most  dif- 
ficult one  to  contend  with.      Where  the  land  is  light  and 


^^H 

^^^^^^BMHHIIHHSH 

■■ 

PPV 

■H^^^^vaftii^ja^L^^ 

PHI 

hn^^^.ii.                  >  ll^QII^^BH^^I 

^^Kfv 

Hay  Loader. 


without  a  subsoil  of  clay,  alfalfa  is  not  likely  to  be  in- 
jured very  much  by  winter  killing.  Alfalfa  needs  a  good 
start  by  fall,  and  it  is  best  to  sow  it  early  if  witch  grass, 
wild  mustard,  shepherd's  purse,  or  any  other  common 
weeds  are  liable  to  choke  it  out  before  winter  starts. 
Usually  it  is  necessary  to  inoculate  the  seed  bed.  That 
is,  it  is  necessary  to  bring  soil  from  an  old  alfalfa  field  and 
scatter  it  over  the  seed  bed  at  the  rate  of  200  or  300 
pounds  per  acre,  just  before  seeding.  In  this  old  soil 
there  are  countless  numbers  of  bacteria  that  produce  little 
swellings  on  the  alfalfa  roots.     These  bacteria  then  gather 


282 


FORAGE  CROPS 


nitrogen  from  the  air,  and  make  a  compound  of  it  that  is 
available  for  the  plant. 

209.  The  Value  of  Alfalfa.  —  "  For  filling  a  milk  can,  an 
alfalfa-fed  cow  is  equal  to  a  handy  pump,"  says  a  western 
farmer.  Primarily,  alfalfa  is  a  dairy  feed.  It  is  rich  in 
protein.     It  is  claimed  that  five  acres  will  furnish  enough 

green  feed  to  sustain  a 
herd  of  twenty  cows 
from  June  to  October, 
if  only  a  little  is  cut  at 
a  time.  As  a  pasture 
for  fattening  hogs,  little 
more  can  be  desired 
than  a  flourishing  alfalfa 
stand.  Alfalfa  hay, 
weight  for  weight,  con- 
tains as  much  nutrition 
for  milk  cows  as  bran 
does. 

The  plant  is  a  deep 
feeder  :  its  roots  extend 
far  into  the  subsoil  and 
bring  thence  to  the  sur- 
face some  potash  and 
phosphoric  acid.  This 
improves  the  soil.  An  alfalfa  field  is  commonly  cropped 
three  times  a  season,  and  sometimes  four  crops  in  a  season 
are  taken.     The  plant,  too,  is  a  perennial. 

Alfalfa,  being  a  legume,  to  which  family  also  belong  the 
clovers,  beans,  peas,  and  vetch,  is,  like  the  other  members 
of  the  family,  a  nitrogen  gatherer.  The  free  nitrogen  of 
the  air  is  combined  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air  and  earthy 
matters  of  the  soil  to  form  nitrates,  which  are  tissue-build- 
ing plant  foods.     The  factory  where  this  transformation 


The  Alfalfa  Plant. 


CLOVES 


283 


takes  place  is  in  the 
little  nodules  or  swell- 
ings on  the  roots.  The 
agents  which  work  the 
transformation  are  bac- 
teria. These  bacteria 
form  with  the  legumes  a 
close,  mutually  helpful 
relationship  called  sym- 
biosis. 

210.  Clover. —  Four 
kinds  of  clovers  demand 
notice,  —  the  red,  the 
crimson,  the  white,  and 
the  alsike. 

a.  Red  clover  can  be 
recognized  by  a  pale  spot  on  the  face  of  the  leaflets. 
Two  kinds  of  red  clovers  are  grown,  the  "  medium " 
and  the  ""mammoth."  As  a  rule,  "red  clover"  means 
the  "  medium  red."     In  the  eastern  part  of  the  United 


Red  Clover. 


mm 


Red  Clover  Seed.     Natural  Size. 


284 


FORAGE  CROPS 


States,  red  clover  ranks  next  to  timothy  as  a  hay  crop. 
It  is  sown  broadcast  in  early  spring  on  winter  wheat 
or  rye.  Timothy,  perhaps,  has  been  seeded  in  with 
the  grain.  The  clover  and  timothy  get  a  good  start  in 
the  fall,  after  the  grain  has  been  removed,  and  the  next 
year  there  should  be  two  good  hay  crops.     The  second  of 

these,  even   if   timothy 


also  was  sown,  will  be 
wholly  clover.  If  the 
field  remain  "  in  hay  " 
another  year,  the  red 
clover  will  have  run  out 
— unless  the  second  crop 
of  the  year  before  is 
allowed  to  seed  itself 
back  on  the  land.  The 
timothy,  however,  will 
have  thickened,  to  take 
its  place.  In  many  dairy 
districts  a  large  part  of 
the  clover  is  raised  with- 
out any  admixture  of 
timothy,  because  clover 
hay  is  preferable  for 
dairy  cattle.  In  city 
markets,  pu  i  timothy 
brings  the  highest  price,  and  the  timothy  and  clover  mix- 
ture is  in  high  favor.  The  beneficial  effect  of  clover  upon 
the  soil  has  been  noted  in  Chapter  VIII. 

b.  Crimson  clover  is  an  annual  and  a  native  of  Europe. 
Its  heads  are  long  and  crimson.  Farmers  usually  sow  it 
in  orchards  and  with  corn  to  enrich  the  soil. 

e.  White  clover  produces  white  flowers  ;  it  is  a  perennial, 
living  more  than  two  years.     It  is  a  low-growing  plant, 


Dodder,  a  Parasite  on  Clover. 


SOILING   CROPS 


285 


of  no  value  for  hay  purposes,  although  for  pasture  it  takes 
high  rank. 

d.  AUike  clover  thrives  well  even  on  soil  slightly  acid,  and 
is  little  subject  to  diseases.  The  flowers  are  rose-tinged. 
It  thrives  even  on  wet  soils  where  it  is  impossible  to  get 
a  stand  of  red  clover.  Alsike  grows  later  than  red  clover, 
and  usually  gives  only  one  crop  in  a  season.  It  is  a 
perennial,  however;  and  in  feeding  value  for  dairy  cows, 
weight  for  weight,  it  ex 


eels  red  clover  by  about 
one  sixth,  ranking  about 
halfway  between  that 
plant  and  alfalfa.  It  is 
much  easier  to  cure  than 
red  clover,  and  the  stems 
are  less  woody.  In 
many  sections  it  is 
steadily  growing  in 
favor. 

211.  Soiling  Crops.  — 
The  term  soiling  crops 
has  been  explained  a 
little  above.  The  word 
"  soiling  "  in  this  phrase 
does  not  refer  to  the 
soil,  as  v^'fc  commonly  use  the  word.  During  the  dry 
summer  months,  pasturage  is  likely  to  be  poor,  and  flies 
torment  the  cattle.  When  these  conditions  begin,  the 
milk  flow  falls  off  quickly.  To  prevent  such  loss,  the 
dairyman  needs  to  keep  his  cattle  in  the  barns,  during 
much  of  the  day  time,  at  least.  He  cannot  well  depend 
upon  hay  and  dry  feed  for  them,  however,  when  they 
have  just  been  on  grass.     So  he  needs  soiling  crops. 

The  dry  season  varies  somewhat  from  year  to  year  ;  and 


Alsike  Clover. 


286 


FORAGE  CROPS 


Soy  Beans. 
Natural  size. 


the  wise  dairyman  pre- 
pares for  such  variation 
by  growing  a  series  of 
different  soiling  crops. 
Oats,  corn,  cow  peas, 
soy  beans,  clover,  vetch 
are  all  suitable  ;  and  two 
or  three  of  them  may  be 
planted  in  such  order  as 
to  provide  green  forage 
through  the  dry  period. 
Millet  is  often  sown  for 
this  purpose  in  May,  and 
is  ready  to  use  for  soil- 
ing in  six  weeks.     Kye, 

planted  in  the  fall,  may  be  used  the  following  summer 

even  earlier  than  millet.     When  any 

part  of  these  crops  is  not  needed 

for  soiling,  it  can  always  be  cured 

for  hay,  or,  if  a  grain  crop,  it  may 

be  allowed  to  mature  for  harvest. 
212.   Silage  —  Fresh     forage     is 

better  than  dry  for  producing  both 

milk  and  beef.     Soiling  crops,  we 

have    seen,    provide    fresh    forage 

during    the    grass-growing   season. 

Silage  provides  it  during  the  rest  of 

the  year;    and  even   for  July  and 

August  a  summer  silo  on  many  farms 

now  takes  the  place  of  soiling. 
A  green  crop  is  made  into  silage 

by  being  cut  fine  and  then  packed 

away  in  a  "silo."     Silos  are  built 

of  wood  staves,  of  brick,  of  cement.       Building  a  Cheap  Silo. 


SILAGE 


287 


or  of  clay  tiles  or  blocks.  The  important  points  are  that 
the  walls  be  air-tight,  and  smooth  on  the  inside,  and,  in 
cold  climates,  that  they  keep  the  silage  from  freezing 
unduly.  The  inside  surface  of  the  wall  must  be  smooth, 
and  free  from  needless  corners,  so  that  the  silage  can 
be  packed  without  leaving  air  spaces  in  it.  A  layer  of 
the  silage  at  the  top  will  spoil,  from  air  contact,  unless 
the  farmer  begins  to  use 
it  as  soon  as  it  is  stored  ^; 
and,  after  use  begins, 
about  two  inches  of 
depth  must  be  fed  each 
day,  to  prevent  too  long 
a  contact  of  any  part 
with  air. 

The  principle  of  silage 
making,  then,  is  that  of 
"  canning "  the  green 
forage  with  all  its  juices 
in  it.  The  bacteria  al- 
ready in  the  substance, 
however,  are  not  killed 
by  heat,  as  in  most  canning  of  vegetables. ^  Sourness  or 
acidity  is  produced  by  cellular  respiration  which  continues 
until  all  the  free  oxygen  is  exhausted.  The  acids  so  pro- 
duced protect  the  ensilage  from  harmful  bacteria.  The 
sourness  is  neither  objectionable  to  cattle  nor  harmful  to 
them.  If  air  reaches  the  silage,  however,  so  that  molds 
form,  it  is  unfit  for  any  animal,  and  sometimes  fatal  to 
horses. 


Cow  Peas. 
Natural  size. 


1  This  spoiled  top  layer  —  a  foot  or  so  in  depth  —  will  protect  the  silage  be- 
low for  a  long  time.  Sometimes,  too,  if  the  silage  is  not  to  be  used  for  some 
months,  the  farmer  wets  the  top  and  sows  oats  or  barley  upon  it.  The  thick 
green  growth  that  results  effectually  "  seals  "  the  silo  top. 

*  Some  vegetables,  like  rhubarb,  can  be  canned  without  heat. 


288 


FORAGE  CROPS 


Almost  any  juicy  green  crop  may  be  turned  into  silage. 
Clover,  cow  peas,  vetcli,  and  even  clean  beet  tops,  are  often 
used.  The  best  silage,  however,  is  made  from  corn.  Only 
a  few  years  ago  corn  silage  was  usually  made  from  imma- 
ture "  fodder  "  corn,  grown  thickly  in  the  drills,  with  only 
nubbins  for  ears.  But  experiments  have  proved  that  a 
large  part  of  the  food  value  is  lost  if  the  corn  is  cut  much 
before  it  is  ripe.     The  approved  practice  now  is  to  sow  in 

such  a  way  as  to  develop 
a  fair  proportion  of  ears, 
and  to  cut  the  crop  only 
a  week  or  so,  at  most, 
sooner  than  if  it  were 
being  cut  for  grain. 
Corn  silage  made  in  this 
way  is  not  only  much 
higher  in  food  value 
than  the  older  sort,  but 
it  is  also  less  likely  to 
spoil,  and  it  is  almost 
wholly  free  from  the 
odor  that  has  in  the  past 
been  associated  with 
silage  feeding.  This  is 
because  the  sugar  of  the  sap  has  had  time  to  turn  into 
starch.  In  less  mature  corn  the  sugar  ferments  the  silage. 
A  silo  "  cutter,"  driven  by  an  engine,  receives  the  corn 
bundles  from  the  field,  cuts  stalks  and  ears  rapidly  into 
half-inch  or  quarter-inch  pieces,  and  elevates  these  shreds, 
by  a  carrier  or  a  "  blower,"  ten,  twenty,  thirty,  or  even 
sixty  feet,  to  the  top  of  the  silo.  As  the  corn  falls  within 
the  silo  it  is  trodden  down  or  in  some  other  way  packed 
thoroughly  by  two  or  more  men. 

The  total  cost  of  a  ton  of  corn  silage  (including  all  fac- 


A  Cement  Silo. 


SUGGESTIONS  289 

tors,  like  land  rent  and  interest  on  cost  of  silo)  should  be 
under  f  4.  At  a  much  higher  figure  it  would  still  be  the 
cheapest  winter  forage  for  dairymen.  With  good  corn 
silage  (made  from  ripe  corn,  ears  and  all),  and  with  good 
clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  milk  cows  can  go  through  the  winter 
profitably  with  little  more  grain  than  when  on  pasture  and 
with  about  as  high  a  flow  of  milk.  No  dairy  farmer  with 
as  many  as  ten  cows  can  afford  to  he  without  a  silo. 

Practical  Questions 

1.  Define /oragre.  2.  In  what  way  does  forage  differ  from  table 
vegetables?  3.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  a  good  pasture? 
4.  What  is  hay?  5.  Why  is  timothy  a  valuable  hay  plant? 
6.  State  some  of  the  reasons  why  some  farmers  fail  to  obtain  a  good 
stand  of  alfalfa.  7.  Why  is  alfalfa  a  valuable  crop?  8.  Describe 
three  clover  plants.  9.  For  what  purpose  are  soiling  crops  used? 
10.   What  is  silage?      11.    What  is  the  relation  of  silage  to  soiling? 

Home  Exercises 

1.  How  many  tons  of  forage  are  raised  on  your  home  farm  ?  Is  its 
market  value  equal  to  that  of  the  grains? 

2.  Since  roots  are  just  as  important  to  plants  as  stems,  and  since 
roots  grow  in  the  ground  out  of  sight  and  for  this  reason  are  less  known 
than  stems,  roots  of  the  common  forage  plants  should  be  carefully  dug 
up  in  order  to  study  their  main  peculiarities.  Do  you  notice  any  dif- 
ference between  the  roots  of  the  clovers  and  those  of  the  timothy  ?  On 
which  are  swellings  found?  Make  a  sketch  of  these  roots  and  bring 
it  to  school. 

3.  Test  your  father's  seeds  for  germination  according  to  the  method 
given  for  garden  seeds.     Report. 

4.  Collect  specimens  of  all  the  insect  and  fungus  enemies  to  the 
forage  plants.  Bring  the  specimens  along  to  school  and  send  samples 
of  them  to  your  Experiment  Station  for  identification  and  for  best 
methods  of  control. 

Suggestions 

1.  Teachers  should  study  local  conditions  carefully  before  home 
exercises  are  assigned  to  the  pupils.  This  of  course  applies  to  all  home 
exercises.     In  educational  work  the  home  has  been  too  often  neglected 


290  REFERENCES 

as  a  ceuter  of  educational  activities.  A  tendency  may  arise,  however, 
to  expect  certain  work  to  be  done  at  home  which  can  be  done  better  in 
school.  It  is  better,  for  some  pupil,  or  the  teacher,  to  bring  to 
school  specimens  of  the  alfalfa  plants  for  study  as  a  class  exercise  than 
to  have  the  pupils  study  the  plant  at  home.  The  pupils  are  all  together 
in  the  class,  and  the  teacher  is  present  to  instruct  and  to  inspire  them. 

2.  Pupils  should  be  taught  to  draw,  measure,  and  describe  accurately 
such  plant  material.  It  is  better  to  get  a  little  definite  first-hand 
knowledge  of  a  few  things  than  a  smattering  knowledge  of  many 
things  obtained  through  the  eyes  of  other  people. 

3.  Take  the  class  into  a  neighboring  field  in  which  leguminous 
plants  are  growing.  Dig  up  a  specimen  of  alfalfa,  clover,  or  beans. 
Show  the  tubercles  or  nodules  on  the  roots  and  explain  their  function. 

4.  Sprout  about  a  dozen  alfalfa  seeds  in  a  Pasteur  dish  or  by  some 
other  method.  When  the  roots  are  an  inch  long  insert  them  into  the 
meshes  of  a  piece  of  fly-netting  and  allow  them  to  hang  in  the  water 
of  a  wide  mouth  bottle.  Add  a  few  drops  of  phenolphthalein  to  the 
water  and  enough  weak  limewater  to  give  the  solution  in  the  bottle  a 
marked  reddish  tint.  Examine  in  a  few  days.  Does  the  color  of  the 
water  fade  out?     Explain. 

Sprouting  seedlings  of  any  kind  thrown  into  a  weak  solution  of  lime- 
water,  colored  red  with  phenolphthalein,  will  decolorize  the  water  in  a 
short  time.  This  is  a  most  striking  experiment  to  prove  that  roots  in 
activity  throw  off  acids. 

References 

Farm  Grasses  of  the  United  States.     Spillman. 
Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America.     T.  F.  Hunt. 
Farmers'  Bulletins.     Wa.shington,  D.  C. 
66.   Meadows  and  Pastures. 
72.   Cattle  and  Ranges  of  the  Southwest. 

237.   Lime  and  Clover. 

278.   Leguminous  Crops  for  Green  Manuring. 

318.   Cow  Peas. 

339.   Alfalfa. 

372.   Soy  Beans. 

458.   The  Best  Two  Sweet  Sorghums  for  Forage. 

578.   The  Making  and  Feeding  of  Silage. 

485.   Sweet  Clover. 

508.   Market  Hay. 


CHAPTER   XXII 

WEEDS 


An  ill  weed  grows  apace.  —  Chapman, 


213.  What  plants  are  weeds?  Weeds  have  been  called 
"plants  out  of  place."  It  is  true  that  the  vilest  weed  may 
be  of  some  use  in  the 
right  place.  Beside  the 
edge  of  a  torrent  a  Can- 
ada thistle  may  check  the 
cutting  away  of  the  soil 
by  the  stream.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  wheat 
plant  may  be  as  trouble- 
some in  a  potato  patch 
as  mustard  would  be. 
Most  plants,  however, 
that  bother  a  farmer  are 
plants  that  are  never,  or 
hardly  ever,  cultivated 
by  man.  Some  of  them 
perhaps  are  "  only  plants 
whose  use  has  not  yet 
been  found."  But  for  practical  purposes,  weeds  may 
be  defined  as  useless  plants  that  interfere  with  regular  crops. 

214.  Like    useful    plants,   weeds    are    annuals,   biennials,  or 
perennials. 

(^a)    Annuals  grow  from  seed  only.    The  seed  germinates 

291 


Joe  Pye  Weeds. 
A  perennial  common  in  wet  places. 


292 


WEEDS 


in  the  spring  and  dies  the  same  season.  Familiar  examples 
are  :  dodder,  pigweed,  bindweed  (wild  morning  glory), 
wild  mustard,  ragweed,  Russian  thistle,  sheplierd's  purse. 
(6)  Biennials  in  the  first  season  produce  only  a  short 
stem,  leaves,  and  a  thick  root.  From  this  root,  in  the 
second  year,  the  plant  shoots  up,  flowers,  produces  seeds, 
and   then    dies.      The    common  thistle,  dandelion,  moth 

mullein,  teasel,  carrot, 
and  wild  parsnip  are 
biennials. 

c.  Perennials  live  on 
from  year  to  year,  the 
underground  part  sur- 
viving the  winter. 
"  Live-forever,"  Canada 
thistle,  quack  grass, 
Johnson  grass,  plantain, 
oxeye  daisy,  sorrel,  and 
toadflax  are  common  per- 
ennials. 

A  few  plants  may  be- 
long to  two  classes,  ac- 
cording as  the  conditions 
are    favorable   for   their 
growth.    The  dandelion, 
for    instance,    may     be 
either   a   biennial    or    a 
perennial. 
215.    How  to  Get  Rid  of  Weeds.  —  Two  points  must  be 
borne  in  mind  when  one  wishes  to  destroy  a  weed:  First, 
to  which  of  the  three  classes  does  it  belong,  or  how  long 
does  it  live  ?     Second,  how  does  it  reproduce  and  spread  ? 
Annuals  need  only  to  be  prevented  from  flowering  and 
going  to  seed.      Nature  will  kill  them  at  the  end  of  the 


Ragweed. 


now  TO   GET  RID   OF   WEEDS 


293 


season.  If,  however,  a  farmer  wishes  to  destroy  them 
earlier  than  their  flowering  time,  he  uses  the  same  methods 
that  are  necessary  for  biennials.  It  is  possible  to  get  rid 
of  annuals  or  biennials  (1)  bt/  thorough  tillage;  (2)  bi/ 
cutting  and  pulling;  (3)  bg  using  chemicals;  (4)  bg 
rotation  of  crops;  or  by  combining  two  or  more  of  these 
methods. 

To  rid  the  farm  of  perennial  weeds,  the  most  ap- 
proved methods  are : 
(1)  thorough  tillage;  (2) 
rotation  of  crops ;  (3)  us- 
ing chemicals;  (4)  sum- 
mer fallowing  ;  (5)  using 
a  smothering  crop. 

Tillage  and  crop  rota- 
tion were  mentioned  in 
Chapter  V  as  means  of 
destroying  weeds.  The 
cutting  and  pulling 
methods  are  used  when 
weeds  are  few  in  number, 
or  are  scattered  here  and 
there  along  fences  and 
roadsides.  If  the  flowers  are  mature,  however,  there  is 
often  sufficient  vitality  left  to  ripen  the  seeds,  even  after 
the  plant  has  been  cut  or  pulled.  Therefore  weeds  in 
flower  had  better  be  burned. 

If  annuals  and  biennials  have  spread  thickly  and  widely 
over  an  entire  field,  tillage  and  crop  rotation  are  the  best 
means  of  eradicating  them. 

Some  plants,  like  wild  mustard,  when  growing  among 
oats  or  potatoes,  may  be  killed  by  an  iron  sulphate  spray. 
The  chemical  kills  the  weed  but  does  not  harm  the  oats 
or  potatoes.     The   100-12-50   formula  is  used ;    that  is, 


Wild  Carrot. 


294 


WEEDS 


100  pounds  of  iron  sulphate  and  12  pounds  of  bluestone 
are  dissolved  in  50  gallons  of  water.  The  liquid  is  then 
applied  thoroughly  to  the  weeds  by  a  field  sprayer. 

Common  salt,  gasolene,  or  carbolic  acid  may  be  applied 
by  hand  to  scattering  perennials.     A  little  on  the  root  of 

each  plant  after  the  top  has  been 
grubbed  off  is  usually  enough. 
This  remedy,  however,  makes 
the  soil  less  fertile  for  a  year  or 
two  in  the  spots  where  it  has 
been  applied. 

Summer  fallovnng  means  the 
cultivation  of  a  field  without  a 
crop.  The  land  must  be  kept 
bare  by  frequent  and  thorough 
cultivation.  Then  the  under- 
ground parts  of  a  plant  are 
starved  out  because  they  are  not 
allowed  to  send  up  stems  and 
leaves  to  make  starch. 

Sometimes  buckwheat  is  sown 
to  smother  perennials  that  are 
not  easily  subdued  by  other 
methods.  Buckwheat  itself  has 
some  weed  characters.  It  resists 
drought,  grows  rapidly,  thrives 
on  poor  soil,  and  tolerates 
shade. 

Two  particularly  troublesome 
weeds  we  will  discuss  in  detail. 
■  216.  The  Canada  Thistle  may  be  regarded  as  the  "  Prince 
of  Weeds."  It  came  originally  from  Europe,  where  it  is 
called  "Creeping  Thistle."  It  is  a  perennial,  and  each 
plant  develops  vigorous  rootstocks  from  which  there  grow 


Moth  Mullein. 


THE  CANADA   THISTLE 


295 


Milkweed. 


upward  stems  from  one 
to  three  feet  tall.  The 
leaves  are  bright  green 
above,  white-woolly  be- 
neath ;  the  edges  are 
curved  or  wavy,  deeply 
cut,  and  bear  many 
sharp  stiff  spines ;  the 
flowers  are  rose-purple, 
about  an  inch  long,  and 
are  armed  with  weak 
prickles. 

The  seeds  are  dis- 
tributed chiefly  by  water 
(creeks,  rivers,  irrigation 
canals,  etc.) ;  by  ship- 
ments of  hay,  grain,  clover,  or  grass  seeds  ;  and  by  the 
wind.     They  seldom  ripen  in  cultivated  fields,  because  they 

mature  late  ;  but  along  the  road- 
sides, and  in  pastures  and  vacant 
lots,  where  they  can  acquire 
energy  enough,  a  considerable 
number  of  seeds  are  produced. 
Moreover,  the  plant  spreads  in 
another  way.  In  cultivation, 
the  implements  of  tillage  tear 
up  the  roots  and  spread  them 
over  the  field,  and  then  these 
rootstocks  or  underground  stems 
reestablish  themselves  where 
they  have  been  left  to  lie. 
^^^'^^^-  The   most  effective   remedies 

for  the  Canada  Thistle  are  as  follows  : 

(a)    On  large  areas,  late  plowing  in  the  fall,  without 


296 


WEEDS 


harrowing,  exposes  the  rootstocks  to  the  winter  frost. 
This  will  kill  most  of  them.  There  should  follow  in  the 
spring,  cultivation  thorougli  enough  to  keep  leaves  from 
appearing  above  the  ground.  Without  leaves  (the  breath- 
ing organs)  the  roots 
must  soon  die.  In  the 
summer,  hemp,   millet, 


Two  Kinds  of  Pigweed. 


Canada  Thistle. 
Note  leni^h  of  rootstock. 


or  buckwheat  may  be  sown  as  a  smothering  crop  to  com- 
plete the  eradication. 

h.  Scattered  plants,  or  small  patches,  may  be  covered 
with  tar  paper  or  other  heavy  paper.  The  paper  excludes 
the  sunliglit.     Or  the  plants  may  be  kept  cut  close  with 


QUACK  GRASS 


297 


a  hoe.  After  cutting,  it  is  well  to  apply  a  handful  of 
salt,  or  a  pint  of  strong  brine,  to  each  root.  Gasolene  and 
carbolic  acid  are  good  substitutes  for  salt. 

217.  Quack  grass  is  also  a  perennial.  It  may  grow  as  high 
as  five  feet.  Its  roots  are  botanically  fibrous  rootstocks. 
Its  leaves  are  rough  above  and  smooth  below.  The  plant 
ripens  its  seeds  in  July.  If  mowed  and  taken  in  with  the 
hay,  the  seeds  may  reach 
the  manure  pile,  to  be 
scattered  later  over  the 
farm.  Quack  grass  seed 
is  fairly  common  in  the 
seeds  of  clover,  timothy, 
and  alfalfa.  It  may  also 
be  blown  about  by  the 
wind. 

When 
lished,    a 
spreads 


once    estab- 
small    patch 

rapidly,  not 
merely  by  the  seeds,  but 
even  more  by  the  long, 
thick,  many-jointed, 
white  rootstock,  each 
joint  of  which  sends  up 
a  new  plant.  Ordinary 
tillage  merely  scatters 
and    multiplies    these  roots, 


Plantain. 


more    rapidly  than  it 


even 
does  those  of  the  Canada  Thistle. 

For  both  these  pests  prevention  is  better  than  cure. 
Every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  presence 
of  seed ;  and  if  small  patches  of  the  plant  appear,  they 
should  be  destroyed  at  once  by  some  of  the  methods  de- 
scribed under  the  treatment  of  the  Thistle.  For  Quack 
grass,  on  a  large  scale,  such  methods  are  especially  diffi- 


298 


WEEDS 


cult  and  costly  ;  and  there  are  many  so-called  "  Quack 
grass  farms"  which  have  been  made  almost  worthless  by 
leaving  this  weed  too  long  uncontrolled. 

218.  Cooperation  in  Weed  Control.  —  A  clean  farm,  some 
one  has  said,  is  as  important  as  a  clean  conscience.     One 

abandoned  or  neglected 
farm  may  supply  enough 
weeds  to  stock  the  neigh- 
borhood. The  public 
highways,  too,  are  often 
an  annoyance  to  farm- 
ers who  desire  clean 
farms.  Weed  control 
provides  an  excellent 
opportunity  to  show  com- 
munity spirit.  The  task 
of  eradicating  weeds  is 
sufficiently  difficult  when 
every  one  in  the  com- 
munity works  with  a 
common  purpose  ;  it  is 
well-nigh  impossible  if 
a  few  of  the  farmers 
neglect  or  refuse  to  co- 
operate with  their  neighbors  in  this  matter. 


Tumble  Grass. 

So  called  because  the  top  breaks  off  and 
blows  about  in  the  wind. 


Practical  Questions 

1.  In  what  sense  are  weeds  a  tax  ?  2.  Define  a  weed.  3.  May 
a  weed  have  any  good  qualities?  4.  Nanae  the  three  great  kinds  of 
weeds,  and  give  two  illustrations  of  each.  5.  Why  is  a  perennial 
weed  often  harder  to  destroy  than  an  annual  or  biennial  ?  6.  How  can 
weeds  be  destroyed  by  tillage?  7  In  what  way  may  dandelion  or 
plantain  be  eradicated  from  the  yard?  Explain  how  one  plant  can 
smother  another.  9.  Describe  the  Canada  Thistle.  10.  Discuss 
the  best  methods  of  destroying  it.      11.  Is  a  "clean  farm"  as  im- 


REFERENCES 


299 


portant  as  a  clean  conscience  ?    Can  a  farmer  have  the  first  without 
the  second?      12.   Why  should  farmers  cooperate  in  weed  control? 

Home  Exercises 

1.  Ask  your  father  for  a  description  of  all  the  different  methods 
he  uses  to  destroy  his  weeds.  Which  weed  does  he  think  is  the  worst 
one  on  his  farm?  Why  is 
this  weed  so  objectionable? 
How  does  it  multiply,  and 
how  do  you  think  it  can  best 
be  controlled  ? 

2.  Write  a  short  account 
on  "  How  I  kept  my  Plot 
Free  from  Weeds." 

Suggestions 

1.  Pupils  should  be  asked 
to  bring  to  school  a  few  of 
the  worst  weeds  on  the  farm. 
Tt  is  no  discredit  if  the 
teacher  does  not  know  the 
names  of  all  of  them.  There 
are  over  200,000  different 
kinds  of  plants  known,  and 
no  one  can  recognize  them  all. 
A  good  plan  would  be  to  send 
those  plants  whose  correct 
names  are  not  known  in  the 
community  to  the  State 
College,  for  identification  and 

for  special  information  on  how  to  get  rid  of  them. 

2.  There  should  be  some  practical  work  done  in  the  eradication  of 
weeds.  The  effectiveness  of  the  various  methods  outlined  in  this 
chapter  can  be  demonstrated  on  common  weeds  by  the  teacher. 

References 
Weeds  and  How  to  Eradicate  them.     F.  Shaw. 
Farmers'  Bulletins.     Washington,  D.C. 
28.   Weeds,  and  How  to  Kill  Them. 
464.   The  Eradication  of  Quack-grass. 
545.   Controlling  Canada  Thistles. 


Chicory  in  Oats. 


CHAPTER   XXIII 

THE  OEOHAED 


Come,  let  us  plant  the  apple  tree 
Cleave  the  tou^h  greensward  with  the  spade  ; 
W^dc  let  its  hollow  bed  be  made ; 
Tfiere  gently  lay  the  roots,  and  there 
Sift  the  dark  mould  with  kindly  care.  —  Bryant. 


219.  The  Farm  Orchard.  —  An  orchard  is  a  piece  of  ground 
especially  devoted  to  the  growth  of  fruit  trees,  such  as  the 
apple,  plum,  cherry,  pear,  and  peach.     Nut-bearing  trees, 


Apple  Orchard  in  Winter. 

like   the  chestnut   and    the   shellbark,  form  groves,  not 
orchards. 

Almost  every  farmer  has  an  orchard.     It  may  be  small, 
designed  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  family  only ;  or  it  may 

300 


SELECTING  A  SITE 


301 


be  a  "  commercial "  orchard,  covering  many  acres  and  oc- 
cupying the  greater  part  of  the  owner's  time. 

Fruit  trees  become  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  condi- 
tions of  soil  and  climate.  Consequently,  several  varieties 
are  grown  with  some  success  in  nearly  every  part  of  the 
United  States.     And  since  fresh  fruit  is  a  pleasant  and 


An  Old  Orchard. 


healthy  food,  and  is  a  good  money  crop,  its  production  is 
increasing.     See  Appendix  A,  Chart  VII,  page  470. 

220.  Selecting  a  Site  for  an  Orchard.  —  In  a  level  country, 
it  is  desirable  to  locate  the  orchard  to  the  north  of  the 
farm  buildings,  if  possible,  so  that  it  can  also  serve  as 
a  windbreak.  In  a  mountainous  region,  however,  where 
slopes  and  different  types  of  soils  are  to  be  considered,  the 
orchard  site  cannot  be  so  readily  determined.  If  possible, 
the  orchard  should  slope  to  the  north.  This  is  particularly 
true  of  a  peach  orchard.  On  a  south  slope,  fruit  trees 
start  to  bud  too  early  in  the  spring,  and  may  suffer  from 


802 


THE  ORCHARD 


late  frosts.  The  greater  cold  of  a  nortliern  exposure  may 
retard  blossoming  until  the  danger  of  spring  frost  is 
past. 

Elevated   sites,  too,  are  desirable,  in  order  to  secure 
cold-air  drainage.     Cold  air  is  heavier  than  warm  air,  and 
so  drains  down  into  the  valleys,  forcing  the  warmer  air  up 
the  slopes.     There  is  often  sufficient  difference  in  temper- 
ature between  the  air  in 
a  valley  and  that  on  a 
neighboring  hill  to  ac- 
count for  the  loss  of  an 
entire    fruit   crop.       In 
the  valley,  the  blossoms 
may  be  ruined  by  a  late 
frost  that  does  not  reach 
those  on  the  hill. 

Elevated  sites  provide 
also  for  water  drainage. 
Water  drainage  is  desir- 
able, especially  for  stone 
fruits,  like  plums  and 
peaches,  which  require 
a  well  drained  and  light 
sand}',  or  even  a  stony, 
loam.  Apples  and  pears 
thrive  best  on  moist  clay 
loam,  but  even  these  fruits  respond  favorably  to  the 
benefits  of  water  drainage. 

221.  How  to  Secure  Stock.  — Chapter  XII  has  described 
the  art  and  principles  of  propagation.  Some  fruit-growers 
propagate  their  own  stock  in  the  manner  indicated  in  that 
chapter.  A  larger  number,  however,  buy  their  stock 
outright  from  reliable  nurserymen,  because  they  find  the 
latter  metliod  more  satisfactory  and  economical  for  their 


Grape  Twigs. 


PLANTING 


808 


needs. ^     The  transfer  of  stock  from  the  nursery  bed  to 
the  orchard  should  mean  the  least  possible  change  in  its 
environment.       Other  considerations   being  equal,   then, 
local  nurseries  can  give 
better  satisfaction  than 
those  at  a  distance. 

222.  Planting.  —  Di- 
rections for  planting 
usually  accompany  the 
shipments.  These 

should  be  followed.  In 
general,  the  young  trees 
are  planted  in  rows,  for 
convenience  in  cultiva- 
tion afterward.  The 
trees  in  each  row  should 
be  about  as  far  apart  as 
the  rows  are  from  one 
another.  There  is  a 
general  tendency  to 
plant  fruit  trees  too  close 
together.  This  permits 
the  branches  to  inter- 
lock when  the  trees  are 

mature,  and  it  also  makes  spraying  difficult.     The  following 
distances  are  suggested : 


Peach  Twigs. 


Apples  .... 

.     40  feet 

Pears    .... 

.     28  feet 

Dwarf  apples 

.     15  feet 

Dwarf  pears  .     . 

.     20  feet 

Quinces     .     .     . 

.     16  feet 

Peaches     .     .     . 

.     20  feet 

Plums  .     .     •     . 

.     20  feet 

Apricots    .     .     . 

.     25  feet 

Sweet  cherries    . 

.     30  feet 

Sour  cherries 

.     20  feet 

I  Such  purchases  should  be  made  direct  from  the  nursery,  even  if  by  mail. 
Says  Waugh,  "  It  should  be  preached  everywhere  as  a  part  of  the  gospel  of 
horticulture,  that  nobody  should  ever  patronize  the  traveling  fruit-tree  agent 
on  any  account."     The  traveling  agent  is  likely  to  be  a  representative  of  an 


304 


THE  ORCHARD 


I 


A  rich,  fine  loam,  not  manure,  should  be  carefully 
worked  around  the  roots  in  planting,  and  pressed  down 
with  the  feet.  On  top  a  loose  mulch  of  soil  is  needed  to 
prevent  the  loss  of  soil  water  by  evaporation. 

223.  Fnining.  —  After  a  tree  has  been  planted  it  must 
be  pruned,  or  cut  back,  unless  this  was  done  when  it  was 

taken  up  in  the  nursery. 
There  is  a  natural  bal- 
ance between  the  root 
and  the  shoot  of  fruit 
trees  before  they  are 
dug  up  in  the  nursery. 
By  the  time  the  young 
stock  has  been  trans- 
planted, possibly  one 
half  of  the  stem  must 
be  pruned  away  to  bal- 
ance the  root  loss. 

The  first  pruning  a 
young  tree  receives  is 
particularly  important. 
A  few  cuts  may  deter- 
mine the  form  a  tree 
will  take  for  years. 
Fruit  trees  are  expected 
to  have  a  low-spreading  habit.  Two-year-old  or  three- 
year-old  apple  or  pear  stock  should  be  pruned  to  four  or 
five  small  limbs,  which  are  then  each  cut  off  at  an  outer 
bud,  a  foot  from  the  main  stem.  The  tree  will  then 
assume  the  low-spreading  shape  desired.  Peaches  had 
better  be  cut  to  a  whip  about  18  inches  high. 

Each  succeeding  spring,  the  shears  should  be  used  on 


Apple  Shoots. 


anreliable  nursery,  or  perhaps  a  jobber  or  peddler  who  dispoaes  of  the  calls 
that  may  have  been  bought  up  from  firms  of  good  standing. 


PRUNING 


306 


the  growing  trees,  keeping  them  low  and  open  in  the 
middle,  so  that  the  sunlight  and  air  can  reach  the  fruit 
spurs,  and  so  that  the  fruit  will  be  encouraged  to 
develop  toward  the  base  of  the  larger  limbs  where  its 
weight  will  not  break  down  the  branches  and  injure 
the  tree. 

Early  pruning  serves  to  direct  the  growth ;  then  there 
is  no  call  afterward  to  correct  it.     Winter  pruning  stim- 


Pruning  Peach  Trees. 


ulates  wood  growth,  while   summer  pruning   stimulates 
the  development  of  the  fruit. 

If  a  branch  thicker  than  one's  wrist  must  be  removed, 
it  is  best  to  paint  the  wound  with  plain  white  lead, 
to  prevent  the  entrance  of  fungi.  The  paint  is  a  good 
antiseptic.  Care  is  necessary  to  see  that  the  cut  is 
smooth  and  near  the  main  wood,  so  as  not  to  leave  a  stub, 
otherwise  the  wound  may  not  heal  over. 


306 


THE  ORCHARD 


Early  Bearer. 

This  apple  tree  is  being  injured  by  being 

allowed  to  bear  too  soon. 


224.  The  management 
of  an  orchard  iiic hales 
the  cultivating  and  the 
spraying  of  the  trees, 
and  the  harvesting,  stor- 
ing, and  marketing  of 
the  fruit. 

Many  orchards  are  left 
in  grass,  but  cultivation 
is  certainly  the  better 
practice,  except  on  steep 
hillsides  where  sod  may 
be  continued  for  periods 
of  a  few  years  to  avoid 


soil  wash.  The  usual  method  of  cultivation  is  to  plow 
between  the  rows  in  the  spring,  and  to  harrow  at  intervals 
afterward  to  the  middle 
of  July.  Between  July 
15  and  August  1,  cow 
peas  or  crimson  clover 
may  be  sown  as  cover 
crops.  These  grow  dur- 
ing the  late  summer 
and  fall,  and  are  plowed 
under  the  following 
spring  to  enrich  the  soil. 
The  advantages  of 
cover  crops  are  three  : 

(1)  They  check  un- 
due wood  growth,  and 
so  stimulate  fruit  de- 
velopment ; 

(2)  They  add  humus 
and  fertility  to  the  soil ; 


*  ''V  ./.'x'    'V 

^4-V,^ 

Broken  Crotch. 
The  result  of  bad  early  pruning. 


MANAGEMENT  OF  AN   ORCHARD 


307 


(3)  They  prevent  winter  and  spring  erosion. 

Spraying  for  the  San  Jose  Scale,  where  this  pest  is 
present  and  unchecked  by  parasites,  and  for  the  codling 
moth,  rots,  and  scabs  is  essential  for  the  best  yields  of 
prime  fruit.  The  preparation  and  use  of  sprays  will 
be    fully    discussed 


m 


Chapter  XXVI. 

The  harvesting  and 
marketing  of  the  fruit 
is  very  simple  if  it  is 
sold  locally ;  but  when 
the  more  exacting  tastes 
of  distant  markets  are 
to  be  catered  to,  the 
problems  multiply. 
Prime  fruit  must  be 
picked  carefully  by 
hand,  not  shaken  from 
the  tree,  or  pulled  or 
bruised  in  any  way. 
When  fruit  is  exposed 
for  sale,  it  brings  the 
best  price  if  it  appears 
neat,  sound,  attractively 
graded  and  packed. 

Apples  are  packed 
either  in  boxes  or  barrels. 
Congress  has  not  fixed  a  standard  size  for  the  packing  box 
as  it  has  for  the  packing  barrel.  The  usual  inside  dimen- 
sions of  the  box,  however,  are  10  x  11  X  20  inches.  As  the 
apples  are  being  packed  they  should  be  well  shaken  in  order 
to  give  them  a  permanent  place  and  to  prevent  bruising 
when  handled  in  shipment.  The  upper  layer  is  arranged 
by  hand  to  form  a  level  surface  under  the  head  of  the  barrel 


Ifl^^l 

E 

Bli 

^*     ^^^^^k9 

Bl^ 

'-vv  -^^^^^^^^1 

^^^^^^^Kv' 

v<,S^^^H 

^HHf^' 

'^-^^^^^^^1 

K^"*'*'''!^^^^^^^^^! 

Good  and  Bad  Pruning. 


808 


THE  ORCHARD 


or  box.  Barrel  or  box,  too,  may  well  be  lined  inside  with 
paper  to  prevent  bruising.  Apples  that  are  to  bring  the 
best  price  are  wrapped  individually  in  soft  paper  and  are 

packed    as    evenly    and 


carefully  in  all  the  other 
layers  as  in  the  top  one. 
Our  space  permits 
only  a  few  words  about 
each  of  the  common 
fruits. 

225.  The  Apple.  — The 
Indians  never  saw  an 
apple  until  they  were 
shown  one  by  the  set- 
tlers. There  were  little 
wild  apples  in  America, 
to  be  sure;  but  these 
were  so  bitter  and  use- 
less when  compared  with 
the  "King  of  Fruits" 
that  only  by  a  generous 
courtesy  do  we  call  tliem 
"apples"  at  all.  To- 
day, however.  North 
America  leads  the  world 
in  apple  production. 

More  than  100,000,000  barrels  are  produced  here  annually. 

Over  1,000,000  barrels  were  exported  in  1908. 


Dehorned  Apple  Tree. 


"Johnny  Appleseed"  and  his  work  in  planting  the  apple  in  the 
Ohio  Valley  is  as  interesting  as  Daniel  Boone  and  his  experience  in 
the  dark  lands  of  the  frontier.  "Johnny  Appleseed  "  was  a  Pennsyl- 
vania school  teacher  whose  pay  was  apple  seeds,  which  the  children 
gathered  for  him.  His  boat  filled  with  these  seeds,  he  would  start 
down  the  Ohio,  when  spring  came,  and  plant  orchard  after  orchard 


PEAB8 


309 


on  the  open  spaces  on  both  sides  of  the  river.  When  the  first  settlers 
blazed  their  way  through  the  forests,  these  orchards  awaited  them. 
It  is  said  that  some  of  the  trees  so  planted  are  still  flourishing. 


An  Apple  Show. 

226.  Pears  are  grown  mostly  in  New  England,  in  the 
Central  States,  and  along  the  Pacific  slope.  Like  apples, 
they  are  natives  of  the  Old  World,  where  they  are  still  culti- 
vated very  extensively,  especially  in  France  and  Germany. 
Some  of  the  varieties  successfully  grown  in  the  United 


Harvesting  Peaches. 


810 


THE  ORCHARD 


States    are    the    Bartlett,    Seckel,    Anjou,    Sheldon,   and 
Kieffer. 

227.  Peaches.  —  Peach  blossoms  are  very  sensitive  to 
frost.  The  hardiest  varieties  are  the  Greensboro,  Car- 
men, Belle  of  Georgia,  and  Elberta.  The  special  enemy 
affecting  the  peach  is  the  peach  tree  borer.     Its  presence 

can  readily  be  recog- 
nized by  the  gum  and 
bits  of  wood  exuding  at 
the  base  of  the  tree  or 
near  the  base.  This  pest 
can  best  be  controlled 
by  digging  it  out  with  a 
knife.  The  cuts  should 
be  made  lengthwise 
along  the  burrow. 

228.  Plums.  —  A  va- 
riety of  plums  intro- 
duced into  Hungary 
from  Turkistan  about 
the  year  1461,  thence 
into  Germany  and 
France,  and  finally  into 
Canada  by  the  French 
colonists,  is  best  adapted 
to  drying.  This  is  our  most  valuable  plum,  and  is  known 
as  the  prune.^  Our  other  most  valuable  plums  are  the 
Green  Gage,  Yellow  Egg,  Red  June,  Burbank,  and 
Abundance. 

229.  Cherries  are  classed  as  sweet  and  sour.  Sour  cher- 
ries are  the  more  hardy  and  more  common.  The  favorite 
varieties  of  the  sour  cherries  are  the  Morello,  May  Duke, 


Orchard  Tools. 


1  Other  plums  when  dried  are  sometimes  called  by  this  name. 


SUGGESTIONS  311 

and  Richmond  ;  and,  of  the  sweet  cherries,  the  Oxheart, 
Governor  Wood,  Black  Tartarian,  and  Black  Heart. 

Practical  Questions 

1.  What  is  an  orchard?  2.  Why  do  not  fruit  growers  generally 
propagate  their  own  stock?  3.  For  what  reason  should  a  farmer 
be  cautious  when  buying  young  trees  ?  4.  Discuss  the  location  for 
an  orchard.  5.  What  is  the  purpose  of  pruning  trees?  6.  State 
three  uses  of  a  cover  crop  in  orchards.  7.  Tn  what  way  are  apples 
and  peaches  harvested  and  marketed  in  your  community?  8.  Where 
did  the  apple  originate?  9.  Relate  the  story  of  "Johnny  Apple- 
seed." 

Home  Exekcises 

1.  Each  member  of  the  class  should  plant  at  least  one  fruit  tree  at 
home,  after  the  proper  methods  as  to  planting  and  pruning  have  been 
demonstrated  at  school.  This  tree  may  not  yield  fruit  until  the  pupil 
has  left  school,  but  a  report  should  be  made  on  its  progress  at  the  end 
of  the  course. 

For  practice  it  would  be  a  good  plan  to  start  the  tree  from  the  seed, 
and  graft  or  bud  it  according  to  the  directions  given  in  earlier  chap- 
ters. 

2.  Make  a  fruit  census  of  the  home  orchard,  giving  the  number 
and  varieties  of  different  kinds  of  trees. 

3.  Draw  an  outline  of  your  farm,  and  locate  the  orchard.  Indicate 
by  a  cross  the  place  occupied  by  each  tree.  Is  your  orchard  located 
properly  ?  Is  it  too  large  or  too  small  ?  Do  you  have  the  best  varie- 
ties of  trees  for  market  purposes?     Does  the  home  orchard  pay? 

4.  Explain  in  detail  the  entire  treatment  your  father  gives  his 
orchard. 

Suggestions 

1.  Since  apples  can  be  brought  to  the  school  almost  any  time  of 
the  year,  it  would  be  helpful  if  the  pupils  would  make  a  formal 
description  of  one  or  two  common  varieties.  The  scheme  may  be 
as  follows : 

Variety 

Size ' 

Shape,  —  oblong,  oblate,  flat,  conic,  etc 

General  Color,  —  striped,  splashed,  regular,  etc 


312  THE  ORCHARD 

Dots  on  Skin,  —  few,  distinct,  numerous,  obscure,  etc 

Cavity  (the  depression  at  stem),  —  abrupt,  sloping,  regular,  etc. 
Eye  (the  blossom  end),  —  shallow,  wavy,  deep,  narrow,  etc. 

Flesh,  —  hard,  buttery,  granular,  fine-grained,  etc 

Flavor,  —  sour,  sweet,  flat,  etc 

Pupil's  Name 

School 

Date 

This  outline  may  be  written  on  the  board  or  on  paper.  The  adjec- 
tives following  each  item  are  merely  suggestive;  others  may  apply. 

2.  A  fruit  tree  should  be  planted  by  the  teacher  and  class ;  that  is, 
a  practical  demonstration  of  a  few  simple  principles  of  planting,  prun- 
ing, and  spraying  should  be  given  on  the  school  grounds. 

References 

The  American  Apple  Orchard.     Waugh. 
Progressive  Fruit  Culture.     Sears. 
TTie  Apple.     Wilkinson. 
Principles  of  Fruit  Growing.     Bailey. 
The  Pruning  Book.     Bailey. 
Farmers'  Bulletins.     Washington,  D.C. 

113.    The  Apple  and  How  to  Grow  It. 

134.   Tree  Planting  on  Rural  School  Grounds. 

154.   The  Home  Fruit  Garden.     Preparation  and  Care. 

181.    Pruning. 

404.   Irrigation  of  Orchards. 

482.   The  Pear  and  how  to  Grow  It. 

491.   The  Profitable  Management  of  the  Small  Apple  Orcliard 
on  the  General  Farm. 


CHAPTER   XXIV 

TIMBER  TKEES 


A  song  to  the  oak. 

The  brave  old  oak, 
Who  hath  ruled  in  the  greenwood  long! 

Here's  health  and  renown 

To  his  broad,  green  crown 
And  his  fifty  arms  so  strong!  —  Chorley. 


230.  Timber  trees  form  a  crop,  as  truly  as  wheat  does. 
To  be  sure,  this  crop  does  not  mature  within  a  year  or 
even  within  a  decade  of  years  ;  but  as  it  grows  it  be- 


itffi  iltta^ic^^l^           ^i9^ 

1 

mm 

\ 

I 

h 

TT  --jtaj 

Lji  ■              ^  ^^^^>^^    a   ^^m                         IW^T^i-   ■  -r,-^ 

":^";.-:-V  -.mt 

W»  HJ*^"  ■'-  '^~' 

mZ     ^~'-f-    ■"■■■■   . 

An  Oak  in  an  Open  Field. 
313 


314 


TIMBER   TREES 


comes  a  constantly  increasing  source  of  pleasure  and 
profit.  Unhappily,  this  crop  is  too  little  grown.  Our 
wood  lots  are  rapidly  disappearing,  while  the  demand  for 
timber  is  increasing.  Two  and  one  half  times  as  much 
timber  is  annually  consumed  in  America  as  is  grown  here. 
Trees  will  grow  on  hillsides  and  in  rocky  places  that 
are  unfit  for  general  farming ;  and,  if  care  is  taken  to  cut 


•\»©^ 

'M^MiJb^^i^ 

W^^^i^'-     "-' 

1^^ 

I^K^K^-       ^^vi 

m 

r>i^. 

*.«L*^^^p|HF 

■,^*3*-r, 

_ 

^^„^^^p***i»*aMH«»»        n- 

An  Elm  in  an  Open  Field. 


only  "ripe"  trees  and  to  plant  new  ones  to  take  the 
places  of  those  cut,  the  wood  lot  on  such  a  part  of  the 
farm  may  give  higher  returns  for  labor  spent  upon  it  than 
do  the  richest  acres  of  the  farm.  Wood  lots  are  valuable 
to  farmers  indirectly  as  well  as  directly ;  and  both  direct 
and  indirect  value  varies  with  the  size,  composition,  and 
location  of  the  lot. 

231.  Direct  Values.  —  Timber  trees  supply  shingles,  laths, 
posts,  poles,  fence  rails,  railroad  ties,  staves,  barrel  hoops, 
mine  timber,  firewood,  pulp  wood,  distillation  wood,  and 


FIVE  INDIRECT   VALUES 


815 


a  long  list  of  other  articles  that  are  needed  on  the  farm  or 
in  the  arts.  Mr.  Fernow,  while  Chief  of  the  Division  of 
Forestry,  estimated  that  the  net  yearly  income  from  an 
acre  of  ordinary  mixed  forest  would  range  from  $1  to 
13  in  the  value  of  the  wood  products.  If  we  consider 
how  little  attention  is  demanded,  and  the  kind  of  land 
from  which  this  income 
can  be  derived,  it  is  easy 
to  see  that  few  other 
crops  can  show  superior 
net  results. 

232.  Five  indirect  values 
of  timber  cultivation 
may  be  explained  briefly. 

(a)  Absorption  and 
retention  of  water.  The 
leaf  mold  and  matted 
roots  absorb  and  hold 
back  the  rainfall.  This 
tends  to  prevent  loss  of 
soil  by  washing,  and  the 
filling  up  of  streams  by 
silt,  and  the  consequent 
interference  with  navi- 
gation. Forests  have 
little  effect  on  the  total 
amount  of  the  rainfall. 
They  do,  however,  exert  a  marked  influence  on  the  avail- 
ability of  the  rainfall  for  farm  purposes.  The  leaves 
of  trees,  and  the  litter  of  twigs,  branches,  and  mold  in 
the  soil,  break  the  force  of  the  raindrops ;  and  for  this 
reason  the  soil  of  the  forest  floor  is  not  so  compacted 
as  a  similar  soil  in  the  open.  The  water  dripping  from 
the    branches,  trunks,  and   leaves  soaks  into   the   loose, 


A  Mixed  Stand  of  Timber. 

Contrast  the  shape  of  forest  trees  with 
that  of  trees  in  an  open  field. 


816 


TIMBER   TREES 


granular  soil  beneath,  instead  of  draining  off  quickly  into 
streams.  The  roots,  too,  form  natural  channels  for  the 
seepage  or  entrance  of  water  into  the  soil.  In  the  winter 
and  spring,  also,  the  forest  cover  prevents  the  snow  from 
rapid  melting  and  in  this  way  enables  the  snow  water  to 
penetrate  the  soil  instead  of  running  away  in  destructive 
freshets. 

And  water  not  only  enters  the  forest  soil  more  easily 
than  that  of  the  open ;  it  likewise  leaves  the  forest  soil 


A  Windbreak. 
Show  why  this  is  not  satisfactory. 

more  slowly.  Evaporation  is  retarded  by  the  protection 
afforded  by  the  trees  against  wind  and  sunshine.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  a  wood  lot  may  furnish  50  per  cent 
more  available  water  for  springs  and  subsoil  than  an 
open  field  with  the  same  rainfall.     And  the  subsoil  water, 


FIVE  INDIRECT   VALUES 


317 


we  know,  is  the  water  to   be   depended   on  in   times  of 
drought. 

(6)  Windbreaks.  A  wood  lot  of  timber  trees  may  serve 
the  important  purpose  of  breaking  the  force  of  the  north- 
ern blasts  not  only  for  the  farm  buildings  but  also  for 
tender  crops  in  the  field.  Three  rows  of  evergreen  trees 
planted  ten  feet  apart  each  way,  alternated  in  the  adjoin- 
ing  rows,  are   very  satisfactory  for  this   purpose.     The 

outside  row  should  con-  

sist  of  a  fast  growing 
variety,  like  the  white 
pine ;  the  tree  of  the 
middle  row  should  be  a 
medium  grower,  like  the 
spruces.  And  in  the 
inside  row  the  slow 
growers  (cedars  or  arbor 
vita))  are  very  suitable. 

(<?)  Trees  help,  not 
merely  to  shelter  from 
the  cold  of  winter,  but 
also,  in  some  degree,  to  cool  the  heated  air  of  summer. 
The  evaporation  of  the  vast  amount  of  water  from  their 
leaves  is  a  cooling  process. 

(cZ)  Q-ame  animals  and  insect-eating  birds  find  a  natural 
home  in  a  wood  lot.  Useful  animals  of  this  nature  are 
killed  or  driven  away  from  a  community  more  by  the  ax 
or  saw  in  felling  trees  than  by  the  gun.  Hunters  have 
probably  done  less  to  decrease  our  wild  life  than  have  the 
woodmen. 

Any  farmer  out  of  whose  life  there  has  gone  the  desire 
to  hunt,  fish,  or  ramble  occasionally  with  boyish  abandon, 
has  lost  a  priceless  joy  that  neither  money,  position,  books, 
nor  human  companionship  can  replace.     Wealthy  people, 


Cross  Section  of  Oak. 


318 


TIMBER    TREES 


in  foreign  countries,  especially,  buy  extensive  tracts  of  land 
to  convert  them  into  game  preserves.  In  America, 
farmers  as  a  rule  have  not  appreciated  the  value  of  diver- 
sions and  sports  as  a  means  of  cultivating  the  manysided- 
ness  of  their  nature.  They  have  assumed  too  much  that 
happiness  comes  after  wealth  has  been  acquired  rather 
than  while  it  is  being  acquired. 

Birds  must  have  a  place  in  which  to  build  their  homes 
and  rear  their  broods.     The  erection  of  bird   boxes  is  a 

city  attempt  to  coax 
certain  birds  to  take  up 
their  abodes  near  man. 
In  the  country,  bird 
boxes  are  a  negligible 
factor,  and  will  perhaps 
always  remain  so,  for 
the  reason  that  they  do 
not  attract  many  of  the 
pest-destroying  birds 
upon  which  the  farmer 
must  depend.  Trees  and 
shrubs  are  necessary  in 
a  farm  community  to 
secure  the  services  of  the  birds  most  desired. 

(«)  Mural  gatherings.  In  every  rural  community  there 
should  be  a  grove  suitable  for  large  summer  gatherings. 
A  grove  for  this  purpose  is  not  needed  on  every  farm. 
Nor  need  the  grove  belong  to  the  public  in  order  to  be 
suited  for  public  use.  However,  if  the  environs  of  the 
country  church  or  school  are  of  sufiBcient  size,  and  are  really 
attractive  with  shade  and  beauty,  they  are  to  be  preferred 
to  those  that  are  private-owned.  The  presence  and  adapta- 
bility of  some  grove  for  rural  gatherings  is  of  primary 
importance  :  its  ownership  is  of  secondary  importance. 


Cross  Section  of  Norway  Spruce. 


THE  KINDS   OF  TREES   TO  PLANT  319 

233.  The  Home  Timber-tract.  —  Not  many  farmers  are 
interested  in  timber  to  the  extent  of  selling  large  quanti- 
ties of  it.  Much  of  the  valuable  timber  that  covered  our 
farm  land  has  now  been  cut,  so  that  there  is  but  little  to 
sell.  The  small  patches  that  remain  here  and  there,  and 
which  could  readily  be  sold  to  the  lumberman  at  a  good 
price,  are  more  valuable  for  home  use.  The  small  timber 
tract  that  is  not  a  commercial  venture,  but  which  is  de- 
signed primarily  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  home  for  fuel  and 
for  timber,  is  appealing  more  and  more  to  farmers.  The 
starting  of  a  wood  lot  on  land  which  would  be  otherwise 
useless  is  not  only  good  patriotism  but  also  good  business. 

234.  In  the  selection  of  the  kinds  of  trees  to  plant,  several 
general  principles  must  be  borne  in  mind.  Trees  that 
thrive  well  locally  are  to  be  preferred  to  those  which  may 
have  superior  qualities  in  other  respects  but  which  have 
not  been  proven  to  fit  the  soil  and  climate.  Timber-trees 
have  a  wide  range.  That  is,  one  kind  of  tree  may  be  found 
growing  wild  over  a  considerable  part  of  the  country.  But 
still  certain  combinations  of  climate,  soil,  and  rainfall  are 
most  favorable  for  its  best  growth.  This  question  of  the 
adaptation  of  a  particular  species  of  tree  to  the  environ- 
ment to  which  its  ancestors  have  been  adapted  for  cen- 
turies, must  be  considered.  A  farmer  desires  not  a  fair 
oak,  hickory,  or  pine  merely,  but  one  of  superior  merits  — 
one  that  will  reach  the  highest  degree  of  development 
under  the  conditions  of  his  own  farm. 

Another  principle  to  consider  is  the  uses  which  the  wood 
is  to  serve.  The  home  wood  lot  must  serve  the  greatest 
possible  number  of  purposes.  Certain  trees,  like  the  locust, 
black  walnut,  wild  black  cherry,  and  catalpa  lack  the  general 
usefulness  of  the  white  pine,  hickory,  tulip-poplar,  chestnut, 
white  oak,  and  ash.  Each  tree  of  the  first  list  has  special 
uses  in  which  it  excels.     For  example,  the  locusts  excel  for 


320  TIMBER   TREES 

posts  ;  black  walnut  and  wild  black  cherry  for  furniture. 
But  none  of  them  has  the  all-round  utility  of  the  white  pine. 
Still  another  principle  of  consideration  is  the  value  of  a 
mixed  growth  of  trees  in  the  wood  lot  over  what  is  known 
as  a  pure  stand,  or  the  growth  of  one  species  of  timber.  A 
grove  of  trees  of  different  kinds  affords  a  wider  range  of 
usefulness  than  a  grove  of  any  one  species,  and  it  is  less 


A  Rail  Fence. 
A  common  sight  when  timber  was  plentiful. 

liable  to  suffer  complete  destruction  from  insect  depreda- 
tion. A  pure  stand  of  hickory  is  liable  any  summer  to  be 
destroyed  by  the  bark  borer;  and  the  ravages  of  the  chest- 
nut blight  are  only  too  well  known  in  the  east. 

Certain  trees,  too,  like  the  wild  black  cherry,  can  endure 
shade  better  than  the  white  pine.  The  white  pine  and  the 
wild  black  cherry  together,  therefore,  produce  a  better 
growth  than  either  alone. 

235.  The  qnestion  whether  to  plant  seeds  or  seedlings  de- 
pends on  the  kind  of  tree  and  the  relative  costs  of  seeds 


CARE  OF  THE   WOOD  LOT 


321 


and  seedlings.  The  germination  of  tree  seeds,  especially 
those  of  the  evergreens,  is  so  uncertain  that  it  is  frequently 
more  economical  to  buy  seedlings  from  the  nursery.  Says 
Fernow,  with  regard  to  tree  plantings  :  "  In  some  locali- 
ties —  for  instance  in  the  western  plains  —  the  germinating 
of    seeds    in    the    open 


field  is  so  uncertain,  and 
the  life  of  the  young 
seedlings  for  the  first 
year  or  two  so  precari- 
ous, that  the  use  of  seeds 
in  the  field  cannot  be 
recommended.  In  such 
locations  careful  selec- 
tion and  treatment  of 
the  planting  material 
according  to  the  hard- 
ships which  it  must  en- 
counter can  alone  secure 
success." 

Directions  for  prepar- 
ing the  soil,  for  the  time 
and  the  other  details  of 
planting,  and  for  later 
culture,  are  usually  fur- 
nished by  the  nursery. 
These    directions    must 

be  closely  followed  in  order  to  secure  the  best  results, 
especially  from  a  combination  of  species. 

236.  Care  of  the  Wood  Lot.  —  After  the  wood  lot  has  been 
successfully  started,  a  natural  thinning  process  begins. 
The  struggle  for  existence  among  the  seedlings  causes 
many  to  die,  and  at  the  end  of  the  tenth  year  compara- 
tively few  remain.     Attention   needs  to  be  given  at  all 


Injury  to  Shade  Tree. 


322 


TIMBER   TREES 


times  to  such  as  are  diseased  or  stunted.  These  should  be 
removed.  If  the  stand  is  too  dense,  in  spite  of  the  loss 
of  the  numbers  that  have  been  killed  ofif  by  competition, 
it  must  be  thinned  out  by  hand.  Otherwise  the  stems  of 
the  young  saplings  would  soon  be  too  thin  to  support 
their  crowns.     From  300  to  600  trees  —  the  number  vary- 


A  Lesson  in  Forestry. 

ing  with  the  species  —  should  cover  an  acre  when  the  trees 
are  50  years  old. 

237.  "  Conserviiig  the  timber  supply  "  does  not  mean  that 
timber  should  not  be  marketed,  or  that  it  should  be  kept 
entirely  for  some  future  generation,  but  that  it  should  be 
used  with  due  regard  to  the  rights  of  the  future.  The 
people  living  now  are  already  feeling  the  scarcity  of  our 
wood  supply  and  its  consequent  rising  price.  It  is  un- 
fair and  unpatriotic  to  handicap  the  progress  and  well- 
being  of  the  farmers  of  to-morrow  by  depriving  them  of  a 
necessity.     It  is  a  civic  duty  to  see  to  it  that  the  period 


PRACTICAL   QUESTIONS  323 

of  reckless  waste  iu  this  valuable  natural  resource  is 
stopped. 

The  French  use  25  cubic  feet  of  lumber  each  year  per 
capita  ;  the  Germans,  37  ;  and  the  people  of  the  United 
States,  260.  We  are  cutting  nearly  three  times  as  much 
timber  as  is  being  produced.  At  the  present  rate  of 
consumption  and  reforestation,  it  has  been  estimated 
that  our  timber  supply  will  last  only  until  1950. 

Dr.  Van  Hise  gives  the  following  suggestions  for  con- 
serving our  timber. 

(1)  We  must  reduce  waste  in  cutting. 

(2)  We  must  reduce  waste  in  milling  and  manufacture. 

(3)  We  must  reduce  loss  in  turpentining. 

(4)  We  must  preserve  the  life  of  the   tiniber  by  preservative 

treatment. 

(5)  We  must  utilize  by-products. 

(6)  We  must  reduce  fire  losses. 

(7)  We  must  reforest  areas  burned  over. 

(8)  AVe  inust  maintain  forests  or  essential  areas. 

(9)  We  must  maintain   areas  stocked  so  as  to  produce  larger 

growth. 

(10)  We  must  battle  with  insect  pests. 

(11)  We  must  substitute  other  products  for  timl)er. 

(12)  We  must  reform  our  tax  laws. 

Practical  Questions 

1.  In  what  sense  may  timber  trees  be  considered  a  crop?  2.  Dis- 
tinguish between  the  direct  and  the  indirect  value  of  timber  trees. 
3.  In  what  way  do  forests  affect  droughts?  4.  What  is  the  purpose 
of  a  windbreak  ?  5.  How  does  the  forest  protect  game  and  insect- 
eating  birds  ?  6.  State  a  few  advantages  of  having  a  small  timber 
tract  on  the  farm.  7.  What  points  should  be  considered  in  starting 
a  wood  lot  ?       8.    Explain  the  care  a  young  wood  lot  should  receive. 

9.  What  is  meant  by  the  phrase  "conserving  the  timber  supply"? 

10.  Give   three    suggestions    from    Van    Hise    as    to    conservation, 

11.  Would  you  be  willing  to  plant  a  timber  tree  for  the  coming 
generations  ? 


824  TIMBER    TREES 

Home  Exercises 

1.  Determine  the  names,  and  count  the  number,  of  timber  trees 
on  your  farm.  To  determine  the  names  you  should  use  a  book  like 
Apgar's  Trees  of  North  America.  Which  timber  tree  do  you  con- 
sider the  most  valuable? 

2.  Determine  the  names  of  all  the  different  kinds  of  lumber  in  use 
at  your  home,  in  the  barn,  house,  outbuildings,  fences,  and  machinery. 

3.  What  kind  of  wood  makes  the  best  fuel  ?  Which  splits  most 
readily  ?    Can  you  estimate  the  age  of  your  oldest  tree  ? 

SUGGESTIONB 

1.  Arbor  Day  exercises  are  helpful  in  stimulating  interest  in  the 
value  of  trees.  In  nearly  every  state  a  day  or  two  is  annually  desig- 
nated by  some  official  as  Arbor  Day.  Suggestions  for  its  proper  obser- 
vance are  usually  furnished  free  by  the  state  or  national  government. 
Care  must  be  taken  not  to  plant  too  many  trees  or  too  much  shrubbery 
around  the  schoolhouse  or  home.  Too  much  is  perhaps  as  objection- 
able as  too  little. 

2.  Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  bring  to  school  the  leaves, 
flowers,  and  fruit  of  important  timber  trees  for  drawing,  identifica- 
tion, and  study.  It  is  better  to  know  the  value  and  uses  of  the  dif- 
ferent trees  than  merely  their  names. 

References 

Manual  of  Trees.     Sargent. 
Trees  of  North  A  merica.     Apgar. 
Farmers'  Bulletins. 

134.    Tree  Planting  on  Rural  School  Grounds. 

1 73.    Primer  of  Forestry. 

275.   Suggestions  for  the  Management  of  the  Farm  Wood  Lot. 

711.   The  Care  and  Improvement  of  the  Wood  Lot. 


CHAPTER   XXV 

OKNAMENTAL  PLANTS 


Ihave  in  mind  a  garden  old, 
Close  by  a  little  known  highway. 

Where  aster,  pink,  and  marigold 
Keep  their  long  sum,m,er  holiday. 

'Mid  dream,s  and  vision  manifold 
Ihave  in  mind  a  garden  old.       — 


HUTT. 


238.   Purpose.  —  Successful  farmers  are  a  very  busy  class 
of  people,  especially  during  the  summer.     They  have  so 


Landscape  Gardening. 

Scene  in  a  city  park. 

325 


826 


ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS 


many  duties  to  fill  the  clay  that  some  of  them  do  not 
stop  to  think  of  the  supreme  value  of  adding  a  touch  of 
beauty  and  charm  to  the  home  surroundings.  The  field 
may  be  well-tilled,  and  the  farm  generally  present  a  good 
appearance,  but  the  yard  may  look  neglected  and  uninvit- 
ing. 

Sometimes,  too,  this  neglect  of  lawn  and  landscape  has 
even  less  excuse.     It  may  be  due  to  a  false  way  of  looking 


An  Attractive  Country  Home. 


at  life.  The  farmer,  perhaps,  thinks  of  his  home  only  as 
a  factory  whose  sole  purpose  is  to  put  on  the  market  so 
much  hay,  fruit,  or  pork.  He  regards  the  house  merely 
as  a  place  in  which  to  eat  and  sleep,  or  as  a  shelter  from 
the  heat  and  cold,  and  not  also  as  a  home  around  which 
cluster  the  tendrils  of  affection.  But  even  if  the  farm 
buildings  are  viewed  solely  as  the  center  of  an  industrial 
plant,  they  should  not  be  without  a  few  touches  of  embel- 
lishment.    Large  business  concerns  find  that  it  pays  to 


LANDSCAPE    GARDENING  327 

enhance  the  appearance  of  their  buildings  by  beds  of 
flowers  or  clumps  of  shrubbery  and  a  velvety  lawn. 
Surely  the  farmer  should  do  as  much  for  the  farm 
home. 

Ornamental  plants  do  much  to  make  the  home  surround- 
ings more  beautiful  and  satisfying,  and  to  make  the  envi- 
ronment of  the  church  and  school  more  in  keeping  with 
their  high  mission. 

239.  Where  to  Plant.  —  To  know  just  where  in  a  yard  to 
place  the  ornamental  plants  in  order  to  secure  the  best 
effects,  may  not  always  be  easy  to  decide.  Neither  the 
farmer  nor  his  wife  may  be  naturally  artistic,  or  ac- 
quainted with  the  principles  of  landscape  gardening. 
The  school  should  give  some  help  by  calling  attention  to 
a  few  simple  principles  and  by  encouraging  the  cultivation 
of  ornamental  plants  as  a  home  exercise. 

In  general  there  are  two  styles  of  placing  plants :  the 
English,  or  natural ;  and  the  Italian,  or  geometrical. 

240.  English  Style. — The  English  style,  certainly  the 
more  suitable  for  small  lawns,  is  based  on  nature's  methods 
as  seen  in  the  wildwood.  Go  to  the  brook  and  note  its 
graceful  curves,  and  especially  the  arrangement  of  trees, 
shrubs,  vines,  and  herbs,  on  its  borders.  Not  a  straight 
line  can  be  seen.  Visit  the  bushy  stretches  on  the  margin 
of  an  open  field  and  note  the  irregularities  in  plant  arrange- 
ment. There  is  no  order,  no  system  of  grouping.  A 
clump  of  alders  flourishes  here,  dogwood  there,  and 
willows  farther  on.  Beside  them  may  rise  a  buttonwood 
tree.  Herbs  of  many  kinds,  —  grasses,  sedges,  mints, — 
are  huddled  in  an  endless  disarray.  Each  plant  is  most 
concerned  for  its  own  welfare,  and  is  in  competition  with 
all  the  others.  Nature  plants  her  seeds  with  the  most 
careless  indifference  to  the  way  the  matured  plants  may 
appear. 


328 


ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS 


When  planting  by  this  natural  method  in  a  yard,  the 
planter  must  try  not  only  to  retain  the  natural  charm  of 
the  place,  but  even  to  improve  on  it,  by  the  tasteful  use  of 
ornamental  plants.  Every  yard  presents  a  different  prob- 
lem, depending  on  the  time  and  the  money  to  be  expended, 
and  on  obstructions,  slope,  exposure,  size,  and  other  pecul- 
iarities. 

In  a  general  way,  the  yard  to  be  decorated  should  be 
thought  of  as  a  large  framed  picture.     All  planting  should 


English  Style  of  Planting. 

be  done  in  the  border  of  the  yard,  or  the  frame  of  the 
picture.  It  is  best  to  keep  the  center  of  the  lawn  open, 
devoted  to  plain  sod.  In  the  border,  as  a  framework, 
the  larger  plants,  including  trees  and  shrubs,  should  be 
placed  to  the  rear,  with  a  care  not  to  obstruct  a  distant 
and  restful  view,  yet  so  as  to  screen  unsightly  buildings. 
Just  as  we  find  an  irregular  sky-line  when  looking  from  a 
distance  over  the  top  of  forest  trees,  so  the  lawn  trees 


DIFFERENT  STYLES  OF  PLANTING  329 

should  be  so  placed,  by  alternating  taller  and  shorter  ones, 
that  their  sky-line  may  be  broken  and  irregular. 

It  is  best  in  most  cases  to  plant  the  shrubs  in  clusters 
or  groups.  Care  must  be  taken,  however,  not  to  mass  the 
clusters  so  much  as  to  prevent  normal  growth  later  on.  It 
is  well,  too,  to  mass  shrubs  in  the  angles  of  intersecting 
paths   or  beside   the   entrance   to  a    building,    or  in  the 


Italian  Style  of  Planting. 

curve  of  a  widening  pathway,  or  in  some  quiet  nook 
which  can  in  this  way  be  made  especially  attractive  and 
restful. 

Without  overdoing  the  matter,  there  should  yet  be 
worked  into  the  decorative  scheme  a  few  dainty  herbs. 
The  number  and  variety  of  appi-opriate  herbs  both  wild 
and  cultivated  is  sufficient  to  meet  the  most  exacting 
tastes.  Shrubbery  and  trees  should  form  the  natural 
background  of  the  herbs,  so  that,  starting  with  the  green- 
sward in  front,  the  eye  may  pass  easily  up  over  the  low 


330 


ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS 


herbs  to  the  higher  ones,  then  on  to  the  shrubs,  the  trees, 
and  the  blended  sky-line  beyond. 

241.  The  Italian  Style.  —  According  to  the  Italian  style 
of  decorative  planting,  which  is  followed  in  parks  and  on 
large  estates  and  driveways,  straight  lines  and  geometrical 
figures  are  traceable  throughout.  This  style,  however,  is 
not  suited  to  small  country  places,  and  no  discussion  of  it 
need  be  given  here. 

242.  Ornamental  plants  must  be  cared  for  after  planting. 
If  left  to  themselves,  much  of  their  beauty  will  not  appear. 

This  does  not  mean  that 
severe  pruning  is  needed 
every  year,  or  that  plants 
are  especially  liable  to 
be  killed  by  free^g  or 
by  pests.  It  does  mean 
that  some  pruning  is 
necessary.  This  is  best 
done  as  soon  as  the 
flowers  have  fallen.  Cut 
off  the  tips  of  the  grow- 
ing branches,  and,  in  the 
case  of  flowering  shrubs, 
aim  to  give  the  shrubs  a  compact  and  symmetrical  form. 
Shrubs  are  not  expected  to  bear  flowers  on  the  inside  of 
the  clump,  and  external  shearing  not  only  gives  them  a 
better  form  but  increases  the  flower  surface. 

Details  as  to  the  care  of  the  great  variety  of  plants  use- 
ful for  ornamental  purposes  must  be  passed  by.  A  knowl- 
edge of  such  details  can  be  secured  readily  from  the  near- 
est nursery.  Each  variety  needs  special  treatment  for 
the  best  results. 

243.  The  Flower  Garden.  —  It  is  desirable  to  have  a  part 
of  the  yard  devoted  exclusively  to  flowers.     Interest  in 


Hollyhocks. 


THE  LAWN  331 

flowers  is  growing.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  pleasure  in 
planting,  growing,  and  caring  for  such  comforting  and 
beautiful  pets.     Every  stage  of  their  life  is  interesting. 

After  selecting  a  suitable  site  for  the  flower  garden, 
apply  a  dressing  of  horse-manure,  and  carefully  spade  it 
under.  The  soil  must  then  be  raked  and  fined  until 
smooth  and  level.  The  seeds  of  some  plants  may  be  sown 
directly  in  the  garden,  the  plants  being  afterwards  thinned 


nsS^t^^^^^^^S&^^S^A 


Starting  Rose  Cuttings. 

A  school  exercise  in  which  each  pupil  secured  a  rose  cutting  and 
planted  it  under  a  glass  jar. 

to  give  each  plenty  of  room  to  grow.  Others,  like  the 
snapdragon,  cornflower,  coreopsis,  and  petunia,  are  best 
started  in  indoor  pots  or  in  hotbeds,  and  then  hardened 
to  lower  temperature  by  being  transplanted  to  a  cold 
frame  before  being  finally  planted  in  the  garden. 

244.  The  Lawn.  —  Says  Waugh  in  his  Landscape  Gar- 
dening: "One  would  not  want  the  furniture  in  the  par- 
lor to  take  up  three  fourths  of  the  room.  Much  less 
would  one  want   the   green   carpet   of  the   lawn   nearly 


832 


ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS 


covered  with  such  furniture  as  trees  and  flower  beds."  A 
lawn  dotted  all  about  with  flower  beds  is  like  a  picture 
spotted  with  blotches.     Few  spots  in  the  homestead  can 

be  made  more  inviting 
than  a  clean,  well-kept 
velvety  lawn.  The  grass 
should  be  fine,  well- 
matted  and  even.  Ken- 
tucky blue-grass  with 
a  sprinkling  of  white 
clover  will  soon  form  a 
good  sod  -if  the  soil  is 
not  too  sour.  If  the  sod 
becomes  thin  and  poor 
and  choked  with  weeds, 
it  is  probably  best  to  turn 
it  down  with  a  plow  or 
a  spade,  and  start  anew. 
In  doing  so,  care  should 
be  taken  to  secure  several 
inches  of  rich  surface 
loam  into  which  a  thick  coating  of  well-rotted  barnyard 
manure  has  been  worked.  It  is  often  advisable  to  grow 
a  nitrogen-enriching  crop,  like  cow  peas  or  crimson  clover, 
to  further  enrich  the  soil.  This  crop  may  be  turned  under 
in  early  fall ;  and  then,  after  leveling,  rolling,  and  firm- 
ing the  soil,  the  plot  is  ready  for  the  lawn  seed. 


A  Flower  Project. 
Zinnias. 


Practicai.  Questions 

1.  Why  do  farmers  need  ornamental  plants  ?  2.  Is  it  important 
to  know  where  to  place  ornamental  plants?  3.  What  is  meant  by 
the  English  style  of  planting?  4.  In  what  sense  can  a  well-planted 
yard  be  compared  to  a  picture?  5.  What  is  the  Italian  style 
of   planting?       6.    What  care  should  ornamental  plants    receive? 


REFERENCES  883 

7.  Should  a  farmer  maintain  a  flower  garden?  8.  Is  it  good  taste  to 
have  the  central  part  of  the  lawn  occupied  with  flower  beds?  9.  Ex- 
plain the  care  a  lawn  should  receive. 

Home  Exekcises 

1.  A  home  flower  garden  exercise  should  be  started  by  the  girls. 
It  is  best  not  to  use  more  than  a  few  varieties  of  flowers.  Perhaps 
one  would  do.  Start  a  sweet  pea,  aster,  hollyhock,  or  some  other 
flower-growing  contest.  Exhibit  the  flowers.  Write  a  story  on 
"  How  I  kept  my  flower  garden." 

2.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  ornamental  plants  that  are  grown  at  home. 

Suggestions 

1.  The  teacher  should  draw  a  common  type  of  yard  on  the  board 
and  use  it  to  explain  the  reasons  for  different  types  of  ornamental 
plants  here  or  there.  It  might  be  helpful  if  each  pupil  were  to  sketch 
his  own  yard  and  garden  on  the  board,  and  try  to  indicate  the  kind 
of  ornamental  planting  most  suitable.  Suggestions  should  be  given 
by  the  teacher. 

2.  Pupils  should  be  taught  to  take  notes  of  the  best-kept  yards  in 
the  community  or  at  places  where  they  may  visit. 

References 

Landscape  Gardening.     Waugh. 
Hoto  to  Plant  the  Home  Grounds.     Parsons. 
In  God's  Out  of  Doors.     Quayle. 
Farmers'  Bulletin. 

134.   Tree  Planting  on  Rural  School  Grounds. 

185.    Beautifying  the  Home  Grounds. 

494.    Lawns  and  Lawn  Soils. 


CHAPTER   XXVI 

INSECTS   AND  BIRDS 


Sweet  is  the  breath  of  mom,  Iter  rising  sweet 
With  charm  of  earliest  birds.  —  Milton. 


245.  Importance  of  Studying  Insects. —  It  costs  the  Ameri- 
can farmer  more  to  feed  insects  than  it  does  to  educate 
his  children,  says  Webster,  an  entomologist  of  note.     At 


Spraying  Apple  Trees. 

least  one  tenth  of  the  farmer's  income  goes  to  support 
these  vandals.  Recent  estimates  put  the  loss  due  to 
insects  in  the  United  States  at  $700,000,000  a  year. 

246.  Two  Classes  of  Insects.  —  From  the  standpoint  of 
killing  insects  by  spraying,  there  are  but  two  classes  to  be 
considered. 

8M 


TWO  KINDS  OF  REMEDIES 


335 


(a)  The  Chewers,  or  Uaters,  are  provided  with  a  pair  of 
hard,  side-working  jaws,  such  as  can  be  seen  in  a  grass- 
hopper.      Farmers  who 


are  not  disposed  to  study 
the  mouth  parts  of  de- 
structive insects  may 
know  them  by  their 
work.  Insects  of  this 
sort  eat  entire  parts  of  a 
plant.  Caterpillars, 
grubs,  and  beetles  be- 
long to  this  class.  ' 

(5)  The  Piercers  or  Suckers  are  insects  that  have  their 
mouth  parts  formed  into  sharp,  slender,  hollow  beaks. 
They  live  entirely  on  sap,  which  they  suck  up  through 
the  beaks,  without  eating  away  the  plant's  body.  They 
merely  pierce  the  skin  of  a  leaf,  and  suck  up  its  juices. 
Plant  lice,  scales,  and  squash  bugs  are  sucking  insects. 


Hand  Sprayer. 


For  shrubs  and  vegetables. 


IMM 

A  Method  of  Mounting  Insects. 

Tobacco  worm  moth  at  left ;   cecropia  moth  in  center  ;  mourning 
cloak  butterfly  at  right. 

247.   Two  Corresponding  Kinds  of  Remedies.  —  The  way  the 

mouth  parts  of  insects  are  constructed,  and  their  method 
of  feeding,  determines  the  choice  of  materials  to  be  used 
in  spraying  them. 


336 


INSECTS  AND   BIRDS 


(a)  The  members  of  the  first  class  are  killed  by  internal 
poisons.      Since  they  eat   away  parts  of  the   plant,  they 


Wheat  Partly  Destroyed  by  the  Hessian  Fly. 

can  be  destroyed  much  as  we  destroy   rats  by   putting 
poison  on  a  piece  of  bacon  for  them  to  eat.     As  the  bacon 

is  eaten,  the  poison  enters 
the  rat's  stomach  along 
with  it.  So  we  spray 
the  leaves  of  plants  with 
a  liquid  solution  poison- 
ous to  insects ;  then,  as 
a  part  of  the  leaf  is  con- 
sumed by  an  insect,  the 
poison  upon  the  leaf 
likewise  enters  the  body 
of  the  pest  and  kills  it. 

Two    common    inter- 
nal insecticides  (internal 
Ancoumois  Grain  Moths  and  Grain  •  <•         i  -n- 

Weevils.  poisons  for    killing    in- 

Abovelstheinjuredgrain-.belowattheleft     «^^t«)     ""^^    arsenate     of 
are  the  weevils ;  at  the  right,  the  moths,     lead  and  Paris  green. 


^ 


i^ 


^ 


M 


TWO  KINDS   OF  REMEDIES 


337 


(1)  Arsenate  of  lead,  if  in  the  paste  form,  is  mixed 
with  water  in  the  proportion  of  3  pounds  of  the  poison  to 
50  gallons  of  water.  In  its  dry  form  1|  pounds  of  the 
poison  is  enough  for  50  gallons  of  water.  The  materials 
should  be  well  mixed  and  strained  before  spraying. 
Arsenate  of  lead  by  the  hundred- 
weight costs  from  eight  to  twelve 
cents  a  pound. 

(2)  Paris  green  is  used  with 
quicklime  and  water  in  the  follow- 
ing proportions : 


Paris  green \  pound 

Quicklime 1  pound 

Water 50  gallons 


The  Paris  green  is  first  made  into 
a  paste  with  a  little  water ;  and 
about  a  pint  of  water  is  addei  to 
the  lime  to  slake  it.  The  two  sub- 
stances are  then  put  together,  some 
more  water  added,  and  the  mixture 
is  strained  and  made  up  to  50 
gallons.  If  quicklime  is  not  readily 
secured,  one  fourth  pound  of  the 
Paris  green  may  be  mixed  with  50 
gallons  of  water.  The  purpose  of  the  quicklime  is  to 
prevent  the  Paris  green  from  burning  the  foliage. 

Both  insecticides  are  applied  in  a  fine  spray.  It  is  impor- 
tant that  the  spray  mist  touch  every  part  of  the  plant 
where  the  pest  is  likely  to  feed.  Arsenate  of  lead  is  very 
adhesive,  and  not  easily  washed  off  a  plant  by  rain.  It  is 
rapidly  taking  the  place  of  Paris  green  for  spraying. 
Farmers  often  use  either  one  or  the  other  of  these  insecti- 
cides in   combination  with   some  fungicide    (poison    for 


Potato  Beetle. 

Stages    of    growth    from 
egg  to  adult. 


338 


INSECTS  AND  BIRDS 


killing  ^ungO  like  Bordeaux  Mixture  or  diluted  lime- 
sulphur  wash.  One  spraying  then  serves  two  pur- 
poses.      For    large    fields    there   are    "horse    sprayers" 

that  cover  several   rows  at 

one  time. 

Lead  arsenate  and  Paris  green  are 
both  deadly  poisons  to  larger  animals 
and  to  man,  as  well  as  to  insects;  and 
care  must  be  exercised  in  putting  away 
these  mixtures  and  in  cleaning  the 
vessels  used  in  mixing  them. 

(5)  External  poisons. 
Since  sucking  insects  obtain 
their  food  from  the  interior 
of  the  plant,  and  do  not  eat 
its  tissues,  they  would  not 
be  destroyed  by  an  internal 
poison  unless  it  were  dis- 
solved in  the  sap.  This 
would  injure  the  plant. 
Therefore  an  external  poison 
is  applied  to  such  insects 
as  are  attacking  the  plants. 
Two  common  external  insec- 
ticides are  the  following: 


(1)    Kerosene  Emulsion 

Hard  soap \  pound 

Hot  water 2  gallons 

Kerosene 2  gallons 


Insect  Work  on  Leaves. 


The  soap  is  cut  into  thin  slices  and  dissolved  in  hot 
water ;  and  the  kerosene  is  added  while  the  solution  is 
still  hot.  On  dormant  trees,  unthout  foliage^  this  solution 
is  diluted  with  eight  times  its  bulk  of  water;  on  foliage^ 


TWO  KINDS  OF  REMEDIES  339 

with   tivelve    times    its   bulk.      The   mixture    should  be 
stirred  thoroughly  before  application. 

(2)   Lime  and  Sulphur  Solution 

Fresh  quicklime 50  pounds 

Sulphur 100  pounds 

Water 50  to  60  gallons 

The  lime  is  slaked  in  a  little  water,  and  the  sulphur  is 
made  into  a  paste.  Both  are  boiled  together  in  sufficient 
water  in  a  kettle  for  one  hour.  The  solution  is  then 
strained,  and  made  up  to  50  or  60  gallons  by  adding  water. 


Toads  Eating  Caterpillars. 

When  ready  for  use  on  dormant  trees,  as  for  San  Jos6 
scale,  the  spray  should  be  diluted  with  eight  times  its  vol- 
ume of  water  or  more  exactly  so  that  the  hydrometer  (an 
instrument  to  measure  densities)  reading  is  1.03.  For 
summer  control  work,  that  is,  when  the  spray  is  to  be 
used  on  foliage  as  a  fungicide  as  well  as  a  weak  insecti- 
cide it  should  be  diluted  twenty-four  times  its  volume 
with  water,  or  so  that  the  hydrometer  reads  1.01. 

These  external  poisons  coat  the  insect's  body  with  a 
fine  film,  and  close  up  its  breathing  pores.  The  spraying 
must  be  done  thoroughly,  so  as  to  reach  all  insects  upon 
the  plant.  The  principle  is  the  same  as  that  of  sprinkling 
chickens  with  a  chicken  powder  to  kill  lice. 


840 


INSECTS  AND   BIRDS 


248.  Some  harmful  insects  cannot  be  reached  by  sprays. 
Cutworms,  for  instance,  do  much  daniage  in  fields  and 
gardens  by  cutting  off  the  tender  plants.  To  destroy 
them,  one  half  a  pound  of  Paris  green  is  mixed  with 
twenty-five  pounds  of  dry  bran.  The  mixture  is  stirred 
up  in  two  gallons  of  water  and  sweetened  with  a  little 

sugar  or  molasses.  Small 
quantities  of  the  mash 
are  placed  here  and  there 
in  the  soil  as  the  vege- 
tables come  up. 

Mosquitoes  are  de- 
stroyed by  the  use  of 
kerosene  on  the  ponds  in 
which  they  breed,  —  a 
pint  of  kerosene  to  250 
square  feet  of  water  sur- 
face. The  grain  moth  is 
killed  by  evaporating 
carbon  bisulphide  where 
the  grain  is  stored.  The 
potato  vine  borer  is  de- 
stroyed by  gathering  up 
the  vines  and  burning 
them.  The  peach  tree 
borer  must  be  dug  out 
when  once  in  the  tree. 

249.  The  Great  Variety  of  Insects.  —  There  are  more  than 
200,000  different  kinds  of  insects  known.  Only  few  of 
these  can  be  found  on  one  farm  ;  but  if  a  man  who  has 
made  a  special  study  of  insects  should  make  a  list  of  all 
the  different  kinds  which  he  can  find  in  one  neighborhood, 
the  number  would,  no  doubt,  be  surprisingly  large. 

Not  all  insects  are  harmful.     Some  are  beneficial ;  and 


Tent  Caterpillars. 


THE  HOUSE  FLY 


341 


others  are  of  no  special  interest  to  farmers  in  either  way. 
Most  of  the  good  work  done  by  the  beneficial  ones  con- 
sists in  aiding  man  in  destroying  the  harmful  ones  by 
acting  as  parasites. 

250.  Common  harmful  varieties  include  the  clothes  moth, 
bedbug,  carpet  beetle,  cockroach,  apple  maggot,  weevil, 
chinch  bug,  corn-root  worm,  plant  lice,  currant  worms, 
potato  bugs,  and  the 
many  other  pests  that 
exact  a  heavy  toll  from 
the  farmers'  toil.  Three 
pests  will  be  treated  in 
some  detail,  —  the  house 
Jli/,  the  tSan  JbsS  scale, 
and  the  codling  motU. 

251.  We  place  the  house 
fly  first  because  it  is  so 
well  known  over  the  en- 
tire globe,  not  only  in 
the  country,  but  in  most 
cities  as  well.  In  Chap- 
ter IV  we  learned  that 
house  flies  breed  in  filthy 
places,  and  are  the 
carriers  of  disease  germs 
to  man.  Dr.  L.  O.  Howard,  Chief  of  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Entomology,^  has  made  a  long-  study  of 
the  house  fly  in  its  relation  to  disease,  and  he  has  shown 
that  typhoid  fever  germs  are  carried  to  healthy  people 
principally  by  the  house  fly. 

If  there  is  a  microscope  in  the  school,  place  a  house  fly 
under  it.     Look  for  the  hairs  on  its  body  and  legs,  and 
for  the  sticky  pads  at  the  toes.     You  will  not  be  able  to 
1  Entomology  is  the  Science  of  Insects. 


Work  of  Walnut  Caterpillars. 
The  leaves  are  eaten  but  the  nuts  are  left. 


842  INSECTS  AND   BIRDS 

see  any  germs,  perhaps,  but  you  can  see  thousands  of  tiny 
hairs  to  which  germs  can  cling.  When  flies  come  from 
stables  and  outhouses,  these  hairs  may  be  literally  covered 
with  dangerous  germs ;  and  these  may  multiply  rapidly  if 
allowed  to  reach  suitable  food,  like  milk. 

The  house  fly  is  one  of  those  insects  requiring  special 
treatment.  A  knowledge  of  the  methods  by  which  it  se- 
cures its  food  is  of  little  value.  No  one  would  begrudge 
the  little  it  eats.     We  must  do  two  things  to  control  flies : 


Shot-hole  Borer. 

Above  is  the  insect  —  natural  size  —  and  below,  some  of  its  ravages  on 
peach  bark. 

(1)  keep  them  from   hatching,  so  far  as  we  can ;    and 

(2)  keep  those  which  have  hatched  away  from  human 
food. 

Farm  homes  should  have  substantial  window  screens 
and  fly  doors  in  an  excellent  state  of  repair.  The  com- 
mon adjustable  screen,  selling  for  about  thirty-five  cents, 
is  easily  bent  or  warped,  and  hence  useless.  Permanent 
screens,  to  last  season  after  season,  ought  to  be  fixed  in  all 
the  main  windows  of  the  house.     It  is  an  investment  that 


THE  HOUSE  FLY 


343 


pays.  For  flies  that  gain  entrance,  a  liberal  use  of  fly 
paper  is  recommended.  If  many  flies  have  entered  the 
house,  it  is  well  to  close  it  up,  and  disinfect  with  per- 
manganate of  potash  and  formalin. 

For  a  breeding  place,  the  house  fly  prefers  horse  manure, 
but  it  likes  also  any  other  manure^  This  is  one  more  rea- 
son (see  Chapter  IX)  for  removing  barnyard  manure  to 
the  field  as  quickly  as  possible.     Excretions  in  outhouses 


Work  of  the  San  Jose  Scale, 
Note  the  many  dead  branches. 

should  be  covered  with  lime,  ashes,  land  plaster,  or  plain 
earth,  to  keep  away  the  flies ;  and,  if  any  member  of  the 
family  has  typhoid  fever,  the  excretions  should  be  treated 
with  formalin,  or  some  other  disinfectant.  This  treat- 
ment should  continue  for  a  year  after  the  disease  has 
disappeared. 

The  power  which  flies  have  to  reproduce  is  almost  in- 
credible,—  as  is  the  case,  too,  with  most  other  insects. 
A  fly  lays  about  120  eggs  at  a  time.  These  eggs  will 
develop  into  adult  flies  in  about  ten  days,  and  half  of 


844 


INSECTS  AND   BIRDS 


Scale  Parasite. 


them  will  be  females,  ready  to  lay  more  eggs.     In  one 

season,  if  none  of  the  descendants  of  the  first  pair  were 

destroyed,  the  offspring 
would  equal  the  unimag- 
inable number  of  2  fol- 
lowed by  twenty-three 
ciphers.  One  fly  "  swat- 
ted "  in  the  spriug  means 
many  less  in  the  sum- 
mer and  fall. 

252.  The  San  Jos^  Scale. 
—  The  house  fly  is  a 
household  pest;  the  San 
Jose  scale  is  a  pest  of  the 
orchard  and  garden. 
And  a  destructive  pest  it 

is.      Orchard  after  orchard    has   been    destroyed   by  it. 

Entire  neighborhoods  have  lost  nearly  every  fruit  tree. 

Farmers  at  first  seemed 

helpless  in  the  presence 

of  its    ravages.      Many 

of  them  had  never  heard 

of  spraying  fruit  trees, 

when  this  insect  appeared 

in  this  country,  and  quite 

a  few   did    not   believe 

that  spraying  would  be 

an   effective    method  of 

controlling  it. 

No  pest,  however,  has 

created  such  an  interest 

in  spraying  as  the  San 

Jos6  scale  has.     And  in  a  sense,  while  its  damages  have 

been  tremendous,  the  interest  it  has  aroused  in  the  neces- 


WORK    OF    THE    SCALE    PaRASITE. 


THE  CODLING  MOTH  345 

sity  of  combating  pests  by  scientific  methods  is  part 
payment  for  the  injuries  it  has  inflicted  in  farm  and 
garden. 

The  San  Jos6  scale  comes  from  China.  The  name 
is  taken  from  the  town  of  San  Jos6,  California,  where  the 
insect  first  appeared  in  the  United  States.  It  is  a  small 
sucking  insect,  a  member  of  the  louse  family ;  and  it  is 
called  a  scale  because  it  develops  a  flat  roundish  shell,  or 
"scale,"  over  its  body.  The  scale  is  from  a  twenty-fifth 
to  a  twelfth  of  an  incli  in  diameter.  The  insect  inserts 
its  beak  in  bark,  leaf,  or  fruit ;  and  injects  a  poison  which 
injures  the  sap  for  the  tree  but  makes  it  digestible  for 
itself.  This  modified  sap  is  then  sucked  into  its  body. 
Thousands  of  these  scales  at  work  at  one  time  on  a  limb 
will  soon  destroy  it,  or  at  least  weaken  its  vitality. 

The  lime  and  sulphur  spray  is  a  most  effective  remedy. 
The  spray  is  applied  in  spring  or  fall,  while  the  plant  is 
dormant,  or  in  a  leafless  state.  Every  part  of  the  aft'ected 
tree  or  shrub,  especially  all  new  growths,  must  be 
thoroughly  covered  by  the  spray. 

Several  kinds  of  parasites,  it  has  been  observed,  prey 
upon  the  San  Jose  scale.  So  far,  these  parasites  have 
done  more  in  the  way  of  checking  its  ravages  than  all  the 
spraying.  But  checking  pests  by  parasites,  as  we  shall 
learn  a  little  later,  is  not  always  a  dependable  method. 

253.  The  Codling  Moth.  —  The  word  "  codling  "  means 
an  immature  apple.  However,  the  codling  worm  lives 
not  only  in  the  immature  but  in  the  mature  or  ripe  apple. 
Boys  have  often  noticed  a  pinkish,  dark-headed  worm  in 
apples.  How  often  have  we  gone  to  the  orchard  and 
started  to  eat  an  apple,  only  to  come  upon  an  ugly  worm ! 
One  can  usually  see  the  hole,  surrounded  with  apple  chip- 
pings,  where  the  fellow  entered.  The  worm  feeds  in  and 
around  the  seed  only,  and  does  not  destroy  the  tree  itself 


346 


INSECTS  AND  BIRDS 


as  the  San  Jose  scale  may  do.  When  full  grown,  the 
worm  leaves  the  apple  and  hunts  out  a  secluded  spot,  per- 
haps under  a  bit  of  bark.  There  it  spins  around  itself  a 
loose  silken  cocoon.  A  small  gray  moth  hatches  from 
this  cocoon.     Spring  cocoons  hatch  in  the  summer,  and 

fall  cocoons  hatch  the 
following  spring  about 
the  time  of  apple  blossom- 
ing. 

The  moth  can  best  be 
destroyed  while  in  its 
worm  stage.^  Since  it  is 
a  chewing  insect,  its  de- 
struction is  affected  by 
spraying  with  lead  arse- 
nate or  with  Paris  green. 
The  spray  should  be  ap- 
plied on  the  young  fruit 
as  soon  as  the  petals  have 
fallen,  and  before  the 
calyx  has  closed  about 
the  pistil.  Spray  thor- 
oughly into  and  all 
around  the  fruit  cluster. 
The  mother  lays  an  egg 
on  or  near  the  flower. 
In  a  few  days  a  tiny 
worm  hatches  fj'om  the 
egg  and  by  instinct  it  is  guided  toward  the  enlarging 
ovary.  If  this  has  been  covered  with  poison,  the  worm's 
first  meal  is  its  last.     The  tree  should  have  a  second  spray- 


The  Codling  Moth. 

Below,  the  worms  in  an  apple  ;  above, 
nests  and  worms ;  two  holes  in  center 
chip  show  where  woodpecker  has  robbed 
the  nests. 


'  Insects  in  their  development  pass  through  several  stages.  In  the  case  of 
moths  the  stages  are  four  in  number ;  namely,  egg,  worm,  pupa,  and  adult. 
It  is  the  pupa  that  is  inclosed  in  a  cocoon,  or  silken  bag. 


THE  SCALE  PARASITE 


847 


ing  about  a  week  or  two  after  the  first,  in  order  to  make 
sure  that  all  young  worms  will  be  poisoned. 

Infested  apples  frequently  fall  to  the  ground.  Up  to  a 
certain  point  this  enables  the  remaining  ones  to  increase  in 
size,  on  ,the  principle  that  the  falling  is  a  thinning  out  process. 
Since  nearly  all  the  early  falling  apples  are  apt  to  be  wormy, 
they  should  be  gathered  promptly  and  fed  to  the  hogs. 


b 


Ichneumon  Flies. 

These  are  beneficial,  as  they  lay  their  eggs  in  harmful  caterpillars. 
The  eggs  hatch  and  the  maggots  kill  the  caterpillars. 

254.  A  Few  Helpful  Insects.  —  If  the  farmer  were  obliged, 
by  himself,  to  check  the  ravages  of  each  particular  pest, 
it  would  probably  soon  be  impossible  for  him  to  raise 
enough  food  for  the  world's  needs.  Fortunately  for  us, 
insects  are  ever  waging  a  bitter  warfare  among  themselves. 
The  moment  the  numbers  of  one  kind  increase  above  the 
normal,  they  are  preyed  upon  and  checked  by  parasites. 

255.  The  Scale  Paraaite.  —  A  notable  example  of  this 
warfare  by  parasites  is  seen  in  the  gradual  decline  in  the 
numbers  of  the  San  Jose  scale.  But  a  few  years  ago  the 
scale   seemed  to  be  destroying   nearly   every   unsprayed 


848  INSECTS  AND  BIRDS 

orchard.  Many  farmers  believed  that  in  time  every  un- 
sprayed  apple,  peacli,  plum,  and  pear  tree  would  be  killed. 
Here  and  there,  however,  some  trees  were  seen  to  be  hold- 
ing out,  showing  little  damage.  It  was  generally  thought 
that  such  trees  had  greater  power  of  resistance  to  the 
ravages  of  the  scales.  This  may  be  true  but  cannot  be 
taken  as  a  full  explanation  of  the  facts.  Unnoticed  to  the 
eye  of  nearly  all  fruit  growers,  a  tiny  worm  was  at  work, 
within  the  body  of  the  scale.  This  worm  is  hatched  from 
an  egg  inserted  into  the  scale  by  a  small  wasp-like  insect 
about  one  fiftieth  of  an  inch  in  length.  This  parasitic 
worm,  and  its  near  relatives,  have  now,  for  the  present  at 
least,  exterminated  the  San  Jose  scale  in  parts  of  the 
Eastern  states. 

In  the  course  of  time  it  is  probable  that  this  beneficial 
parasite  may  be  so  reduced  in  numbers  on  account  of  the 
destruction  of  the  food  for  which  it  has  formed  a  liking, 
or,  by  still  smaller  parasites  living  on  itself,  that  the  few 
scales  unparasitized  may  start  to  increase  again  at  an  enor- 
mous rate  until  their  parasite  can  once  more  multiply  to 
such  numbers  as  to  check  them.  So  nature  maintains  her 
balance. 

256.  Bees.  —  When  we  were  studying  about  cross-pol- 
linating flowers,  bees  were  mentioned  as  pollen  carriers. 
In  this  respect  they  are  very  beneficial.  But  bees  are  also 
valuable  for  the  honey  which  they  make.  Beekeeping 
throughout  the  world  is  a  very  old  industry ;  and  in 
America  thousands  of  colonies  are  maintained  for  this 
purpose. 

As  is  well  known,  bees  live  in  colonies.  Each  colony  is 
made  up  of  workers,  drones,  and  a  queen.  The  workers 
are  undeveloped  females,  whose  business  is  to  gather  pol- 
len and  nectar.  The  drones  are  the  males.  The  queen 
is  the  only  fully  developed  female.     She  lays  the  eggs. 


BEES 


349 


The  nectar  which  bees  gather  from  flowers  is  made  into 
honey,  and  the  pollen  into  beebread,  for  the  young  bees. 

Bees  are  kept  in  hives.  A  hive  is  a  box  having  a  top 
and  bottom  that  can  be  removed.  The  bottom  projects 
somewhat  on  one  side  to  form  a  platform  on  which  the 
bees  may  alight.  They  can  then  pass  inside  through  a 
small  hole  at  the  base  of  the  hive.    Within  the  box  frames 


Beehives  in  an  Orchard. 
Bees  are  useful  in  pollinating  plants. 

are  arranged  in  which  the  honey  is  to  be  placed  and  the 
young  reared. 

In  the  spring,  when  the  colony  has  increased  in  num- 
bers and  a  new  queen  is  about  to  appear,  the  old  queen 
gathers  together  a  large  number  of  workers  and  leaves  the 
colony.  This  is  "  swarming."  The  swarm  usually  lights 
on  some  object  like  a  tree  limb.  It  is  then  necessary  to 
collect  the  swarm  in  a  bag,  and  place  it  in  a  new  hive. 
Bee  keepers  sometimes  clip  the  Avings  of  the  queen  to 
keep  her  from  flying  far.  Thus  they  run  little  risk  of 
losing  the  swarm. 

During  the  winter,  bees  need  protection  from  cold. 
The   hive   should    be   placed  in  a  cellar,  or   shed,  or  be 


360  INSECTS  AND  BIRDS 

loosely  covered  with  straw  or  old  carpet,  according  to  the 
climate. 

If  bees  are  carefully  handled,  there  is  money  in  them. 
But  one  must  not  neglect  them,  nor  allow  diseases,  like 
the  foul  brood,  to  enter  the  hive.  Few  farmers,  however, 
engage  in  beekeeping  except  as  a  side  issue,  and  for  this 
reason  they  are  likely  to  neglect  the  hives  except  at  odd 
moments. 

257.  Birds,  too,  help  the  farmer  to  save  his  crop,  beside 
adding  beauty  to  his  life.     Longfellow's  "  Birds  of  Killing- 


•       4 


Biro  Boxes. 

worth  "  contains  the  following  graphic  picture  of  a  bird- 
less  neighborhood,  where  the  farmers  had  slain  all  the 
birds: 

"  The  summer  came,  and  all  the  birds  were  dead, 
The  days  were  like  hot  coals ;  the  very  ground 
Was  burnt  to  ashes ;  in  the  orchard  fed 
Myriads  of  caterpillars,  and  around 


HOW  BIRDS  HAVE  BEEN  STUDIED 


351 


The  cultivated  fields  and  garden  beds, 
Hosts  of  devouring  insects  crawled,  and  found 
No  foe  to  check  their  march,  till  they  had  made, 
The  land  a  desert,  writhout  leaf  or  shade." 

It  is  believed  that  if  it  were  not  for  the  birds,  success- 
ful agriculture  would  not  be  possible.  They  not  only 
check  the  ravages  of 
many  harmful  insects, 
but  they  also  eat  up  tons 
of  weed  seeds. 

258.  How  Birds  have 
been  Studied.  —  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  follow  a  bird  day 
after  day  to  watch  what 
it  eats.  Some  may  be 
seen  eating  caterpillars 
one  hour,  and  grain  the 
next,  so  that  the  good 
they  are  known  to  do 
may  be  offset  by  the 
damage.  Some  years 
ago,  in  order  to  have  re- 
liable information,  com- 
petent men,  in  the  em- 
ploy of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, undertook  to  an- 
alyze the  stomachs  of  many  specimens  of  all  the  com- 
mon farm  birds.  The  results  of  this  work  have  re- 
moved all  doubt  as  to  the  fact  that  most  birds  pay 
well  for  their  board  and  lodging.  The  following 
contents,  found  in  the  stomachs  of  a  few  of  the 
birds  examined,  show  the  main  articles  of  diet  of  those 
specimens. 


A 

% 

4 

*  "^^^B 

^1>**'          -^ 

m 

v 

W^- 

Red-Headed  Woodpeckers. 

All  woodpeckers  feed  on  insects  harmful 
to  farmers. 


852 


INSECTS  AND   lilRDS 


1  Flicker 28  White  Grubs 

1  Nighthawk    ....  34  May  Beetles 

1  Grackle 100  Cotton  BoUworms 

1  Killdeer 300  Mosquito  Larva 

1  Tree  Swallow     ...  30  Chinch  Bugs 

I  Pheasant 8000  Seeds  of  Chick  weed  and  Dandelion 

1  Duck 72,000  Weed  Seeds 

1  Bobwhite       ....  1700  Weed  Seeds 

1  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo  217  Fall  Webworms 

259.  Some  Less  Helpful  Birds.  —  Except  for  a  few  varieties, 
the  value  of  farm  birds  is  generally  granted.     Even  those 

varieties  that  are  usually 
believed  to  be  harmful 
have  some  good  points. 
Hawks  and  owls  are 
usually  classed  as 
thieves.  The  truth  is 
that  most  of  them  also 
are  the  friends  of  the 
farmer.  In  the  nest  of 
a  barn  owl  there  were 
found  over  3000  skulls 
of  mice  and  rats.  Only 
three  species  of  hawks 
are  known  to  be  injurious, — the  Cooper's  hawk,  the 
sharp-shinned  hawk,  and  the  goshawk. 

An  investigation  of  the  food  habits  of  the  crow,  based 
on  an  examination  of  909  stomachs,  shows  that  about  29 
per  cent  of  its  food  for  the  year  consists  of  corn  and 
other  grain,  the  greatest  quantity  of  this  being  eaten 
in  the  winter  months.  The  remaining  food  consists  of 
noxious  insects,  wild  fruit,  and  seeds. 

The  English  sparrow  is  another  bird  of  ill  repute.  The 
best  that  can  be  said  for  it  is  that  about  10  per  cent  of  its 
food  is  weed  seeds.     Our   native  sparrows,  such  as   the 


The  Crow. 
An  enemy  of  the  corn. 


SUGGESTIONS  863 

chipping,  vesper,  song,  field,  and  grasshopper  sparrows, 
are  all  beneficial.  They  look  much  like  the  English 
sparrow  and  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  they  are 
not  killed  by  mistake. 

Practical  Questions 

1.  Of  what  value  is  the  study  of  insects?  2.  Distinguish  be- 
tween chewing  and  sucking  insects.  3.  In  what  way  may  the 
structure  of  an  insect  determine  the  kind  of  remedy  to  be  used  in 
controlling  it  ?  4.  Give  the  composition  of  an  internal  and  of  an 
external  insecticide.  5.  Describe  the  relation  of  the  house  fly  to 
man.  6.  Discuss  the  ravages  of  the  San  Jos6  scale.  7.  In  what 
way  may  parasites  be  beneficial  ?  8.  What  have  you  learned  about 
the  codling  moth  ?  9.  Speak  about  the  scale  parasite.  10.  Of  what 
benefit  are  bees  to  the  farmer?  11.  Commit  to  memory  the  quota- 
tion from  Longfellow.  12.  How  can  we  prove  that  birds  are  an  aid 
to  farmers?  13.  Have  you  ever  seen  any  birds  doing  damage  to 
man?      14.    What  bird  do  you  consider  of  least  value? 

Home  Exercises 

1.  Collect  all  the  insect  pests  you  can  find  at  home.  Bring  them 
along  to  school  for  study. 

2.  Select  an  insect  pest  of  your  garden  or  your  father's  farm,  and 
give  an  oral  report  on  what  you  have  done  to  combat  it. 

3.  Make  a  careful  study  of  one  bird,  like  the  grackle,  which  may 
be  regarded  of  doubtful  value.  Follow  it  for  one  hour  and  report  its 
work. 

Suggestions 

1.  An  endless  variety  of  school  exercises  is  possible  with  insects, 
almost  any  time  of  the  year.  In  many  sections,  the  milkweed  woi-m 
is  common  when  school  starts  in  the  fall.  Its  transformation  in 
a  tumbler  is  delightfully  interesting  and  instructive.  It  passes 
thi'ough  the  same  stages  as  all  the  higher  insects,  —  eggs,  larva  or 
caterpillar,  pupa,  and  adult. 

2.  A  pest  like  the  cabbage  worm  or  the  codling  moth,  should  be 
brought  to  school,  placed  in  a  tumbler  or  box,  and  fed,  to  get  it  to 
pass  on  to  the  next  stages.  Worms  should  be  fed  on  what  they  are 
found  eating.  Cabbage  worms  are  usually  available  in  September. 
All  that  is  necessary  is  a  tumbler  covered  with  netting  held  in  place 
by  a  rubber  band.     Collect  a  few  worms  and  a  part  of  a  cabbage  leaf 


364  INSECTS  AND   BIRDS 

and  place  thera  in  the  tumbler.  Keep  the  tumbler  clean  and  add 
fresh  cabbage  daily.  You  may  be  growing  the  cabbage  butterfly  or, 
if  the  worm  in  slightly  hairy,  a  small  moth.  As  in  the  case  of  the 
milkweed  worm  the  transformations  take  place  rapidly. 

3.  Pupils  may  be  encouraged  to  send  to  the  State  Experiment  Sta- 
tion a  specimen  of  some  pest  for  identification  and  for  information  as 
to  the  best  methods  of  controlling  it.  A  little  practical  field  study, 
and  a  report  should  then  be  made  on  the  pest. 

4.  Get  a  good  bird  book,  as  Chapman's,  and  learn  the  names,  songs, 
and  habits  of  the  birds.  Be  kind  to  the  farm  birds.  Give  them 
food  and  water  when  these  cannot  be  secured  in  winter. 

5.  Before  any  bird  is  condemned,  it  should  be  caught  stealing  or 
doing  some  real  harm. 

6.  Concerning  bird  boxes,  do  something,  even  though  the  boxes 
are  not  artistic.  Perhaps  we  can  do  considerable  good  in  this  way 
even  in  the  country. 

References 

Bird  Life.     F.  M.  Chapman. 
Economic  Entomology.     J.  B.  Smith. 
Insects  and  Insecticides.     C.  W.  Weed. 
Injurious  Insects  to  the  Farni  and  Garden.     M.  Treat. 
Farmers'  Bulletins.     Washington,  D.C. 
54.   Some  Common  Birds. 

127.   Important  Insecticides. 

155.   How  Insects  affect  the  Health  in  Rural  Districts. 

178.    Insects. 

275.   The  Gypsy  Moth  and  how  to  Control  it. 

442.   Treatment  of  Bee  Diseases. 

447.   Bees. 

492.   The  More  Imjxtrtant  Insect  and  Fungus  Enemies  of 
the  Fruit  and  Foliage  of  the  Apple. 

4J>3.   The  English  Sparrow  as  a  Pest. 

513.   Fifty  Common  Birds  of  Farm  and  Orchard. 

543.    Common  White  Grubs. 

621.   How  to  Attract  Birds  in  Northeastern  United  States. 

630.    Some  Common  Birds  Useful  to  the  Farmer. 

679.   Horse  Flies. 

(The  School  library  may  well  contain  also  Long's  School  of  the 
Woods  and  Robert's  Kindred  of  the  Wild,  two  charming  books  that 
aid  in  the  understanding  of  nature.) 


PART   IV 
STOCK 


CHAPTER   XXVII 

IMPEOVEMENT  AND  FEEDING 


TJie.  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea.  —  Gray. 


260.  The  Importance  of  Farm  Animals.  —  Man  owes  much 
of  his  progress  to  live  stock.     The  ox  and  the  horse  have 


A  Dairy  Herd. 


made  history.  Until  they  were  domesticated,  our  fore- 
fathers were  not  far  removed  from  savagery.  Since  they 
became  the  companions  and  the  helpers  of  man,  their  in- 

356 


866  IMPROVEMENT  AND  FEEDING 

fluence  on  him,  and  his  on  tliein,  liave  meant  the  progress  of 
both.  Just  when  this  association  was  first  formed,  no  one 
knows.  Primitive  man  left  scant  records  of  his  doings; 
and  so  it  is  only  natural  that  mystery  surrounds  the  early 
development  of  our  farm  animals. 

We  do  know,  however,  that  our  common  stock  was  once 
wild,  and  that  man  domesticated  it.  He  needed  the  labor 
of  the  horse,  and  at  times,  the  meat ;  and  the  milk,  flesh, 
and  hides  of  the  cow ;  the  wool  and  mutton  of  the  sheep ; 
the  eggs  and  meat  of  the  hen ;  and  the  manure  of  all  such 
animals  to  be  spread  on  the  land. 

261.  How  Stock  is  Improved.  —  In  their  wild  state,  all  our 
farm  animals  were  very  inferior  to  the  varieties  that  we 
know  to-day.  The  horses  lacked  speed  and  draft.  The 
cows  furnished  enough  milk  only  to  supply  the  needs  of 
their  young.  Little  lard  grew  on  the  sides  of  the  swine. 
The  jungle  fowl  laid  no  more  eggs  than  were  necessary  to 
keep  up  the  numbers  of  her  offspring.  And  the  wool  of 
the  sheep  was  scant  and  poor  in  quality. 

Just  as  man  improved  wild  plants  into  plants  of  much 
higher  usefulness  to  him,  so,  too,  he  improved  wild  animals. 
The  two  greater  natural  forces  with  which  he  worked 
were  heredity  and  variation.  These  forces  we  have  dis- 
cussed in  Chapter  XIV.  To-day  man  understands  better 
how  to  use  these  forces  than  his  ancestors  did,  and  recent 
progress  in  live-stock  improvement  has  been  exceedingly 
rapid. 

Heredity  helps  the  farmer  to  keep  up  his  standard  : 
variation  gives  him  a  chance  to  improve  his  standard. 
The  average  hen  in  farm  flocks  lays  about  135  eggs 
a  year.  In  almost  every  flock,  however,  some  hens  lay 
more  than  that.  One  or  two  in  a  common  flock  may 
lay  200  eggs.  If  the  farmer  can  find  out  which  these  are 
(a  matter  that  calls  for  some  time  and  trouble),  and  then 


GRADING    UP  LIVE  STOCK 


867 


uses  only  their  eggs  in  raising  new  chickens,  the  young 
hens  should,  many  of  them,  lay  about  200  eggs  a  year. 
Those  that  lay  many  less  should  be  weeded  out.  If 
one  or  two  lay  250  eggs,  there  is  chance  for  still  further 
advance.  By  careful  "  selection "  of  this  kind,  chicken 
breeders  in  late  years  have  produced  whole  flocks  that 
average  nearly  250  eggs  a  year,  while  some  300-egg  hens 
have  been  produced.  Lady  Eglantine,  a  White  Leghorn, 
of  the  Delaware  station  has  an  official  record  of  314  eggs 
for  one  year.  Man's  part  in  this  improvement  is  to  select, 
over  and  over  again,  the  proper  variations  that  nature 
offers,  and  then  to  protect  these  selections  from  going 
backward  toward  the  old  average  by  mixing  with  poorer 
stock. 

262.  Grading  up  Live  Stock.  —  Much  money  could  be 
added  to  the  farmer's  income,  if  his  stock  had  more  desir- 
able qualities.  For  ex- 
ample, the  average  cow 
of  the  United  States 
produces  145  pounds  of 
butter  fat  yearly.  But 
in  1914,  May  Rilma,then 
the  champion  Guernsey 
of  the  world,  produced 
1058. 54  pounds  of  butter 
fat  — from  April  8, 1913, 
to  April  7,  1914;  and 
since  then  (1915)  this 
record  has  been  beaten 
by  several  cows.     In  all 

herds,  there  are  differences  enough  in  production  so  that 
the  farmer  may  "  grade  up  "  his  herd  by  selecting  only  the 
higher  producers  for  breeding  purposes. 

Certain  terms  are  in  use  to  express  the  standing  of 


A  HoLSTEiN  Calf. 

Sold  in  Chicago  June  5,  1914, 
for  $20,000. 


868  IMPROVEMENT  AND  FEEDING 

live  stock.  Pure-bred  aniniEds  are  those  which  have  been 
bred  for  particuhir  qualities  during  a  number  of  genera- 
tions. To  be  recognized  as  "pure,"  they  must  have  a 
pedigree,  that  is,  a  statement  of  their  ancestry.  Orades  are 
the  offspring  of  a  "  pure-bred  "  parent  and  a  scrub  or  an- 
other "grade."  When  more  than  half  of  an  animal's 
parentage  is  pure  bred,  it  is  called  high  g^ade.  If  the  ani- 
mal comes  from  a  cross  between  two  different  kinds  of 
pure  breeds,  it  is  called  a  crossbred. 

Few  farmers  can  afford  to  stock  a  farm  all  at  once  with 
pure-bred  animals.  The  cost  is  too  high,  desirable  as 
such  animals  are.  As  a  rule,  the  best  way  is  to  "  grade 
up  "  the  stock.  For  this,  the  farmer  needs  to  buy  only  a 
pure-bred  male  for  his  herd  sire.  This  sire  is  bred  to  the 
best  females  at  hand.  Of  the  offspring,  only  the  best  are 
kept  for  mothers.  By  continuing  to  select  and  breed  in 
this  way,  the  herd  will  soon  consist  of  "high  grades."  If 
the  farmer  can  afford  to  buy  one  or  two  pure-bred  females, 
along  with  the  sire,  he  will  be  laying  the  foundation  for  a 
new  pure-bred  herd  at  the  same  time  that  he  is  so  "  grad- 
ing up  "  his  old  herd. 

263.  A  breeder  may  aim  at  any  one  of  a  variety  of  qualities, 
and,  by  skillful  selection  of  animals  to  be  bred,  he  may 
approach  his  ideal.  Unfortunately,  too  many  breed  mainly 
for  qualities  that  are  only  ornamental.  Until  very  re- 
cently, chicken  breeders  selected  breeding  stock  more  to 
secure  markings  of  the  feathers  than  to  secure  high  egg 
production  ;  and  prizes  at  poultry  shows  have  usually 
been  awarded  on  this  false  basis.  So  breeders  of  Jersey 
cows  have  often  been  in  the  habit  of  discarding  a  good 
milker  if  she  did  not  happen  to  have  a  black  nose  and 
black  tongue,  while  Guernsey  breeders  discard  heifers, 
otherwise  promising,  if  they  do  have  a  black  nose. 

It  is  beginning  to  be  understood  that  such  practice  is 


THREE  KINDS   OF  FEEDS 


859 


wrong.  The  wise  breeder  aims  at  two  qualities,  — per- 
formance and  ability  to  reproduce.  The  cow  that  gives  a 
large  quantity  of  good  milk  is  to  be  preferred,  in  breeding, 
to  the  cow  with  the  most  perfect  color  markings.  But 
even   that   high-producing  cow  is  of  little  value  to  the 


Beef  Cattle  in  Pasture. 


dairy  world  if  her  calves  are  few,  or  weak,  or  of  inferior 
quality. 

264.  Feeding.  —  In  getting  good  results  from  the  farm 
animals, /eet^m^  is  next  to  breeding  in  importance. 

We  have  learned  in  Chapter  VIII  that  plants  are  nour- 
ished by  such  simple  foods  as  nitrates,  phosphates,  and 
potash  in  the  soil.  Animals  cannot  make  use  of  these 
foods  directly.  It  is  the  work  of  plants  to  transform  these 
simple  substances  into  more  complex  bodies  by  combining 
them  with  other  simple  compounds  like  water  and  carbon 
dioxide. 

265.  Three  Kinds  of  Feeds.  —  In  this  way,  plants  form 
three  main  kinds  of  food  for  animals,  — proteins,  carbohy- 
drates, and  fats.  Some  mention  of  these  has  been  made 
in  Chapter  XI.  In  most  vegetables  and  grains,  the  three 
are  combined  in  some  proportion.  But  protein  occurs 
nearly  pure   in    the  white   of   an  &gg',    carbohydrate,  in 


860 


IMPROVEMENT  AND   FEEDING 


starch  and  sugar ;  and  fat,  in  lard.  Stock  feeds  differ  in 
no  way  from  the  vegetable  food  we  serve  on  the  table 
except  in  their  coarseness,  and  in  the  fact  that  heat  is 
seldom  applied  in  preparing  them  for  eating,  and  in  the 
further  fact  that  no  attention  is  given  to  seasoning. 

Protein,  we  have  said,  contains  the  important  element 
of  nitrogen.     Its  presence  in  any  feed  can  be  detected  by 


An  Elaborate  Dairy  Barn. 


the  yellow  color  produced  if  a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid  be 
dropped  on  it.  As  found  in  the  white  of  an  Qgg^  it  coagu- 
lates when  heated.  Its  main  work  is  to  build  tissues,  and 
to  repair  those  that  are  wearing  out.  Recent  experiments 
show  that  it  can  also  take  the  place,  for  a  time  at  least,  of 
carbohydrates  and  fats,  but  only  at  high  cost. 

Fats  and  carbohydrates  are  considered  together  because 
their  functions  in  feeding  are  similar.  Both  produce 
energy  and  yield  heat,  although  fat  is  two  and  one  fourth 
times  as  valuable  for  this  purpose  as  carbohydrate.  Car- 
bohydrate, however,  is  of  particular  importance  because  of 
its  bulkiness  and  its  high  per  cent  of  crude  jfiber.     These 


SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING 


361 


qualities  are  mechanical  aids  in  digestion.    Carbohydrates 
are  readily  transformed  into  fat  in  the  animal's  body. 

266.  The  foil  wing  table  shows  the  per  cents,  or  number 
of  pounds  per  hundred,  of  digestible  nutrients  of  dry  mat- 
ter, protein,  carbohydrate,  and  fat,  in  a  few  common  feeds, 
toofether  with  their  nutritive  ratios.^ 


100  PocNns  OF 

Dry 
Matter 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 
AND  Fat 

Nutritive 
Ratio 

Alfalfa  hay      .     .     . 

91.6 

11.0 

42.3 

1:    3.8 

Buckwheat  bran 

89.5 

7.4 

34.7 

1:    4.7 

Clover  hay  .     . 

84.7 

6.8 

39.6 

1:    5.8 

Corn  silage 

20.9 

.9 

12.9 

1  :  14.3 

Corn  grain 

89.1 

7.9 

76.4 

1:    9.7 

Gluten  meal 

91.8 

25.8 

68.1 

1:    2.6 

Linseed  meal 

90.8 

29.3 

48.5 

1:    1.7 

Oats,  grain 

89.0 

9.2 

56.8 

1:    6.2 

Timothy  hay 

86.8 

2.8 

46.6 

1  :  16.6 

Wheat  bran 

88.1 

12.2 

45.3 

1:    3.7 

Wheat  middlings 

87.9 

12.8 

60.7 

1:    4.7 

Note.  If  you  take  any  of  the  numbers  in  the  protein  column  and  divide  it 
into  the  corresponding  number  of  the  carbohydrate  and  fat  column,  the  second 
number  of  the  ratio  will  be  found.  For  example,  42.3  divided  by  11.0  equals 
3.8.  The  nutritive  ratio  then  is  a  method  of  expressing  the  protein  by  1  and 
the  carbohydrate  and  fat  correspondingly. 

It  will  at  once  be  noticed  from  the  table  that  there  is  a 
wide  difference  in  the  composition  of  foodstuffs.  This 
difference  must  be  taken  into  account  in  feeding. 

267.  Scientific  Feeding.  —  Scientific  feeding  takes  into  con- 
sideration the  cost,  palatability,  digestibility,  bulk,  variety, 
and  composition  of  different  feeds  and  the  effects  on  the 
health  of   the  animal.     In    Henry's  feed  tables,  feeding 


1  By  this  phrase,  nutritive  ratio,  is  meant  the  ratio  of  the  weight  of  digest- 
ible protein  in  any  food  to  the  weight  of  digestible  carbohydrates  and  fat 
combined. 


362 


IMPROVEMENT  AND  FEEDING 


standards  per  day  for  1000  pounds  live  weight  are  given. 
Expert  feeders  follow  tables  of  this  nature.  Examples  of 
these  requirements  are  as  follows : 


Henry's  Feed  Table 


Fob  1000  Pounds  Wkioiit 


Dbv 
Mattkb 


Pbotein 


Cabbo- 

ilVDBATE 

AND  Fat 


Ni;tbitivb 
Ratio 


Horse  moderately  worked  .  .  . 
Cows  giving  11  pounds  milk  daily 
Cows  giving  22  pounds  milk  daily 

Fattening  cattle 

Fattening  swine 

Poultry,  for  egg  production     .     . 


Pound* 

24 
25 
29 
30 
32 
55 


Pound  M 

2.0 
1.6 
2.5 
3.0 
4.0 
8.2 


Poundn 

12.4 
10.7 
14.1 
16.1 
25.1 
39.4 


6.2 
6.7 
5.6 
5.4 
6.3 
4.8 


Suppose  a  1000-pound  horse,  moderately  worked,  were 
given  the  following  rations  daily  : 


Dby 
Matteb 

Protein 

Carbo- 

HVDBATE 

AND  Fat 

nutkitivb 
Ratio 

10  pounds  timothy  hay 
10  pounds  clover  .     .     . 

8.6 
8.4 
7.1 
4.4 

,2 
.6 

.7 
.6 

4.6 
3.9 
4.5 
2.2 

5  pounds  wheat  bran     . 

iar 

d 

Total  weight      .     . 
Requirements  of  stau( 

28.5 
24 

2.1 
2.0 

15.2 
12.4 

1:7.2 
1:6.2 

By  comparing  the  total  weight  with  the  requirements  as 
stated  in  the  table,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  feed  or  ration 
selected  contains  too  much  dry  matter  and  carbohydrate 
and  fat  and  a  very  slight  excess  of  protein,  and  that  the 
nutritive  ratio  is  too  wide ;  that  is,  there  is  not  enough 
protein  for  the  carbohydrate  and  fat.  A  feed,  therefore, 
should  be  selected  with  consideration  of  cost,  palatability, 


FEEDSTUFFS 


363 


and  variety,  that  would  supply  less  dry  matter  and  carbo- 
hydrate and  fat,  and  that  would  bring  down  or  narrow  the 
nutritive  ratio  to  nearly  1 :  6.2.  Such  a  feed  would  be 
what  is  known  as  a  balanced  ration. 

Let  us  make  another  trial  ration,  dropping  the  clover 
hay  entirely  and  substituting  linseed  meal  for  wheat  bran. 


Dbt 
Mattbb 

Protein 

Carbo- 

HYDEATE 

AND  Fats 

NuTRrnvB 
Ratio 

14  pounds  timothy  hay      .     . 

10  pounds  oats 

3  pounds  linseed  meal  .     .     . 

12.15 

8.9 

2.72 

23.77 

24.00 

.392 

.92 

.879 

6.52 
5.68 
1.46 

Total  weight      .... 
Requirement  of  standard 

2.191 
2.00 

13.66 
12.4 

1:  6.2 
1:  6.2 

It  will  at  once  be  noticed  that  the  above  proportiohs 
satisfy  the  requirements  of  the  standard  ration  as  to 
nutritive  ratio  exactly,  and  as  to  the  other  three  require- 
ments very  closely.  Theoretically,  then,  other  things 
being  favorable,  these  quantities  of  feeds  may  be  used. 
It  is  quite  possible,  however,  that  the  first  ration  would 
give  as  good  results  as  the  second  in  spite  of  its  greater 
variation  from  the  standard.  The  linseed  meal  has  a 
marked  effect  on  the  digestive  action  of  the  bowels  and 
is  used  mostly  to  secure  finish  in  a  horse  for  sale  or  for  the 
show  ring,  but  not  above  ten  per  cent  of  the  total  feed. 
If  we  take  one  pound  of  linseed  meal  and  two  pounds  of 
wheat  bran  instead  of  the  three  pounds  of  the  linseed  meal, 
we  should  have,  for  most  work  horses,  a  better  ration, 
although  one  not  as  closely  balanced  as  the  one  just  given. 

268.  From  the  standpoint  of  bulk,  feedstuffs  are  divided 
into  two  classes, — roughages  and  concentrates.  By  rough- 
age is  meant  coarse  materials  like  silage,  fodder,  and  hay. 
Concentrates  contain  more  nourishment,  bulk  for  bulk. 


364  IMPROVEMENT  AND   FEEDING 

Bran,  grains,  middlings,  chop  of  all  sorts,  are  examples  of 
concentrates.  Good  feeding  requires  a  mixture  of  both 
roughage  and  concentrates.  Roughage  is  used  mostly  for 
filling  up  the  intestines  and  for  carrying  along  the  more 
nutritious  feeds. 

Practical  Questions 

1.  How  do  the  improvement  and  the  feeding  of  stock  go  together? 
2.  Which  is  the  most  important  factor  in  improvement,  feeding  or 
breeding?  3.  Define  and  illustrate  the  law  of  heredity.  4.  Is  the 
law  of  heredity  of  more  practical  value  to  the  farmer  than  the  law  of 
variation?  5.  What  is  meant  by  "  grading  up  "  a  herd?  6.  Con- 
trast a  "  grade "  with  a  crossbred.  7.  For  what  ideals  should  a 
breeder  strive?  8.  As  regards  the  food  consumed,  how  do  plants 
differ  from  animals?  9.  Give  the  function  of  each  class  of  feed 
for  animals.  10.  What  points  are  considered  in  scientific  feeding? 
11.  Define  a  balanced  ration  and  a  nutritive  ratio.  12.  Work  out  a 
balanced  ratio  for  a  cow  weighing  1000  pounds  and  giving  22  pounds 
of  milk  daily.  13.  Distinguish  between  a  roughage  and  a  concen- 
trate. 

HoMR  Exercise 

1.  Give  a  complete  report  on  the  methods  of  home  feeding  and 
compare  these  methods  with  those  of  the  standard  tables  so  far  as 
they  are  given  in  the  table. 

2.  What  pure-bred  stock  do  you  have?  Ask  your  father  whether 
pure-bred  stock  pays. 

3.  How  much  money  does  your  father  spend  each  year  for  feed  ? 
If  there  is  an  analysis  given  on  the  sacks,  copy  it  and  bring  the 
analysis  to  school. 

Suggestions 

1.  To  illustrate  the  universal  laws  of  heredity  and  variation,  many 
leaves  of  a  tree,  the  apple  leaf  for  instance,  may  be  brought  to  school. 
Each  pupil  may  try  to  find  two  exactly  alike. 

2.  One  hundred  leav&s  should  be  measured  and  a  graph  (like  those 
made  in  algebra)  of  them  may  be  placed  on  the  board.  Arrange  the 
graph  as  follows : 

For  the  smallest  leaf,  place  a  dot  in  the  upper  right-hand  corner 
above  number  1,  and  opposite  the  number  for  centimeters  (fractional 


REFERENCES  366 

parts  of  an  inch,  qiiarters,  for  example,  may  be  used)  appearing  on 
the  left  side.  The  numbers  on  the  side  indicate  the  height  of  the 
leaf.  A  mark  for  the  next  larger  should  be  placed  above  number  2, 
in  the  upper  right-hand  corner  of  the  square  opposite  its  height,  and 
so  on.  Draw  aline  connecting  these  points.  The  horizontal  tendency 
of  the  line  represents  the  law  of  heredity ;  its  vertical  tendency,  the 
law  of  variation.^ 

References 

The  Feeding  of  Animals.     Jordan. 
Feeding  Farm  Animals.     Shaw. 
Principles  of  Breeding.     Davenport. 
Management  and  Feeding  of  CaUle.     Shaw. 
Farmers'  Bulletins.     Washington,  D.C. 

22.   The  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals. 

170.   Pi-inciples  of  Horse  Feeding. 

251.   Cheap  Dairy  Rations. 

305.   Roots  and  Cabbages  for  Stock  Food. 


'  This  statement  is  not  strictly  accurate  since  heredity  and  variation  refer 
to  tlie  likeness  or  unlikeness  between  ancestors  and  offspring.  The  method 
of  procedure,  however,  were  the  materials  as  available,  would  be  the  same  as 
above. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 

CATTLE 


The  cattle  are  grazing, 

Their  heads  never  raising, 

There  are  forty  feeding  like  one.  —  Wordsworth. 


269.  All  boys  and  girls  are  natarally  interested  in  cattle. 
Cattle  are  beautiful  creatures,  and  in  most  cases  entirely 
harmless.     Watch  the  cows  grazing.     They  move  along 


Live-stock  Judging. 

together,  facing  in  one  direction,  cropping  rapidly  and 
steadily.  Watch  them  at  noonday  chewing  the  cud,  lying 
under  a  spreading  tree,  or  standing  knee-deep  in  a  cool 

366 


BEEF  TYPES  867 

stream,  —  a  perfect  picture  of  peace  and  contentment. 
Then  the  young  calf  !  What  a  wabbly  creature  it  is ! 
Because  it  cannot  stand  the  journey  with  its  mother  while 
she  is  browsing  she  hides  it,  perhaps  in  a  clump  of  bushes. 
And  for  the  reason  that  it  must  go  without  food  for  a 
long  time,  it  has  a  large,  compound  stomach  which  holds 
nourishment  enough  for  several  hours.  The  mother,  too, 
feeding  her  young  at  such  long  intervals,  needs  a  large 
udder  to  hold  the  milk  supply. 

270.  Farmers,  however,  raise  cows,  not  because  they  are 
beautiful,  or  have  interesting  structures  and  habits,  but 
because  they  may  be  very  profitable.  There  was  a  time  when 
cattle  were  the  main  bearers  of  man's  burdens.  They 
serve  that  purpose  still  in  China,  and,  indeed,  to  some 
degree,  even  in  some  sections  of  the  United  States.  In 
our  pioneer  days,  especially  when  there  was  much  logging 
to  be  done,  oxen  were  preferred  to  horses.  Oxen  pulled 
slowly  but  steadily,  and  had  sufficient  patience  for  such 
tedious  work.  As  draft  animals  they  even  yet  are  widely 
used,  particularly  in  foreign  countries. 

The  main  reason,  however,  for  our  interest  in  cattle  lies 
in  the  fact  that  they  supply  us  with  meat,  hides,  milk, 
and  many  useful  products  of  milk, —  cream,  butter,  and 
cheese,  — and  that  they  supply  large  quantities  of  manure. 
We  have  learned  how  important  it  is  to  keep  up  soil  fer- 
tility. Cattle  return  to  the  soil  as  manure  nearly  three 
fourths  of  the  fertile  elements  which  thej'  consume  as 
food. 

The  breeds  of  farm  cattle  are  classified  under  two 
heads,  —  beef  cattle  and  dairy  cattle. 

271.  Beef  Types.  —  The  use  to  which  our  forefathers 
designed  cattle  determined  their  type.  Beef  and  the 
ability  to  produce  just  enough  milk  to  feed  the  calves 
were  the  two  things  wanted  in  the  beef  types.     The  ani- 


368 


CATTLE 


mals  belonging  to  that  type  are  low,  blocky,  compact, 
broad  in  the  back,  and  usually  poor  milkers.  The  com- 
mon breeds  are :  Shorthorn,  or  Durham,  Polled  Durham, 
Hereford,  Aberdeen  Angus,  and  Galloway. 

(a)  The  Shorthorns,  or  Durhams,  came  from  northern 
England.  They  were  early  brought  to  this  country,  and 
are  widely  distributed  and  very  popular  here.     Even  as  a 


Hereford  Cow. 

dairy  animal  they  sometimes  take  fair  rank.  In  England 
there  is  considerable  Shorthorn  blood  in  good  dairy  herds. 
The  horn  is  variable  but  always  short.  In  color  they 
have  a  wide  range,  being  pure  red,  red  and  white,  pure 
white,  or  roan.  (Roan  is  a  growing  together  of  red  and 
white  hair  without  forming  solid  patches  of  either  color.) 

The  Polled  Durhams  are  merely  hornless  Shorthorns. 

(6)  The  Hereford  cattle  come  from  Hereford  in  the 
western   part   of   England.      They   were   first   imported 


BEEF  TYPES 


369 


into  the  United  States  by  Henry  Clay  in  1817.  As  a 
breed,  they  seem  best  adapted  to  level  regions.  They  are 
found,  therefore,  chiefly  on  the  plains  west  of  the  Mis- 


Shorthorn  Bull. 


sissippi,  and '^n.  the  prairies  of  Argentina  and  Australia. 
Their  thick  coat  of  hair  and  their  strong  vitality  makes 
them  unusually  successful  under  hard   conditions  of  cli- 


Herefords  at  Pasture. 


370 


CATTLE 


mate.  They  are  occasionally  called  "  white  faces,"  be- 
cause the  white  face  and  underline  contrast  sharply  with 
the  red  bodies.  The  muzzle  is  flesh-colored,  and  the 
horns  well-developed. 

(c)  The  Aberdeen  Angus.  In  the  northeastern  part  of 
Scotland,  in  the  districts  of  Aberdeen  and  Angus,  there 
was  developed  an  important  beef  breed  which  was  un- 


Aberdeen  Angus  Bull. 


known  to  American  cattlemen  until  the  year  1873.  Since 
that  date  it  has  met  with  high  favor  in  all  the  states  of 
the  Union.  The  cattle  are  hornless  (or  polled}  and  black 
in  color. 

(c?)  The  Galloway  breed  was  named  after  its  home, 
Galloway,  in  southwestern  Scotland.  As  a  type,  they 
resemble  the  Aberdeen  Angus  except  that  the  black  hair 
is  very  shaggy,  especially  in  winter.  Since  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  buffalo,  the  hide  of  this  animal  is  much  sought 
for  floor  rugs,  overcoats,  and  lap  robes.     Large  herds  are 


DAIRY  TYPES 


371 


found  in  Indiana  and  Illinois,  and  the  breed  is  not  un- 
common in  other  sections.  It  has  marked  ability  to  with- 
stand the  rigors  of  western  winters. 

272.  Dairy  Types.  —  In  outline  the  dairy  cow  forms, 
more  or  less  clearly,  three  separate  wedges.  If  we  look 
at  her  from  one  side,  we  can  see  that  her  upper  and  under 
body  lines  would  come  together  if  produced  in  front  of 
the  head.  This  is  the 
first  wedge.  Looked  at 
from  the  top  and  rear 
her  body  becomes  wider 
from  the  chest  to  the 
hips.  This  is  the  second 
wedge.  Viewed  from 
the  top  and  front  she 
gradually  widens  from 
the  withers  (the  junc- 
ture of  the  neck  and 
back)  backward  over 
the  abdomen.  This  is 
the  third  wedge.  In 
general,  while  the  members  of  the  beef  breeds  show  grace- 
ful curves  in  their  bodily  outlines,  those  of  the  dairy 
breeds  show  angles  and  broken  lines.  All  the  other 
organs  of  the  body  seem  to  radiate  from,  and  to  exist  for, 
the  udder  and  the  allied  structures. 

The  head  of  a  dairy  animal  should  be  lean,  with  large 
nostrils,  and  with  a  little  dish  to  a  broad,*  intelligent 
face.  The  eyes  should  be  calm,  clear,  and  bright.  The 
neck,  in  the  female,  should  be  long  and  thin.  In  the 
male,  there  should  be  a  heavily  muscled  chest,  well  filled 
out,  showing  constitution  and  vigor.  The  front  legs 
should  be  straight  ;  the  ribs,  well  arched  ;  the  hips, 
prominent,  especially  in  the  female ;  the  thighs,  muscular, 


Raising  a  Holstein  Calf, 


872  CATTLE 

not  fatty.  Fine  hair,  covering  a  soft  skin,  indicates 
quality. 

When  buying  a  dairy  cow,  however,  the  most  important 
part  of  the  body  to  consider  is  the  udder.  When  milked 
dry,  this  should  hang  limp  and  be  soft  and  pliable  to  the 
touch,  showing  good  secreting  tissue  rather  than  an  excess 
of  meaty  tissue,  and  when  full,  it  should  form  a  graceful 
curve  from  a  point  high  up  in  the  rear  to  another  well 
advanced  in  front.  Prominent  and  winding  milk  veins, 
carrying  the  blood  from  the  udder  into  the  body  wall, 
indicate  an  ample  blood  supply. 

The  common  dairy  breeds  are  the  Jersey,  Guernsey, 
Ayrshire,  and  Holstein-Friesian.  For  dairy  cows  in  the 
United  States,  see  Appendix  A,  Chart  IX,  page  471. 

273.  The  Jersey.  —  In  the  English  Channel,  about  four- 
teen miles  from  the  coast  of  France,  is  the  Jersey  Island, 


Jersey  Cows. 

The  cow  in  front  has  a  record  of  7014  lb.  of  milk  and  443  lb.  of 
butter  in  a  year;  the  one  at  the  rear,  9656  lb.  of  milk  and  613  lb.  of 
butter  in  a  year  ;  the  one  in  the  middle,  6963  lb.  of  milk  and  388  lb. 
of  butter  in  eight  months. 


THE  JERSEY 


878 


the  native  home  of  the  celebrated  Jersey  breed.  There 
are  less  than  40,000  acres  on  this  island  ;  but  it  supports 
about  60,000  people  and  12,000  Jersey  cattle.  In  England 
the  cattle  from  the  Channel  Islands  are  called  "  Alderney," 
and  they  were  so  named  for  many  years  in  America. 

The   color,  while   quite  variable,  is  generally  a  fawn, 
although   yellowish  and   grayish   Jerseys   are  sometimes 


Guernsey  Cow.  {^ 

found,  and  a  solid  dark  brown  color  is  becoming. very 
common.  The  hair  about  the  nostrils  is  grayish  or 
creamy.  A  black  tongue  and  nose  and  blackish  tips  to 
the  amber-color  horns  are  fashionable  traits. 

High  prices  have  been  paid  for  Jerseys.  The  bull 
Eminent  69,631  ^  was  sold  May  30,  1905,  at  public  auction 
for  $10,000  and  soon  after  changed  hands  again  at  private 
sale  at  a  still  higher  figure. 

1  Pure-bred  cattle  are  "  registered  "  by  numbers.  This  number,  69,631,  is 
the  registry  number  of  this  famous  bull. 


874 


CATTLE 


274.  The  Guernsey  breed  is  closely  related  to  the  Jersey 
in  history  and  characteristics.  The  island  of  Guernsey, 
the  home  of  this  breed,  lies  only  a  short  distance  from 
that  of  Jersey,  and  contains  only  12,600  acres  of  land. 
On  the  average,  the  Guernsey  breed  runs  slightly  larger 
than  the  Jersey  and  is  coarser  in  bone.  The  color  is 
yellowish,  brownish,  or  reddish  fawn,  with  white  marking 
on  the  limbs  and  body.  The  muzzle  is  commonly  buff, 
and  is  encircled  by  a  ring  of  yellowish  hair,  as  are  also  the 
eyes.  In  quality  and  quantity  of  milk,  the  Guernseys  are 
much  like  the  Jerseys.  They  are  claimed  to  be  the  hardier 
and  less  subject  to  disease ;  and  at  present  (1916)  their 
prices  range  higher. 

275.  The  Ayrshire  takes  its  name  from  the  county  of 
Ayr,  in  southwestern  Scotland.  It  was  introduced  into 
the  United  States  most  likely  by  way  of  Canada,  and  has 


Ayrshire  Cow. 


THE  H0L8TEIN-FRIESIAN 


375 


spread  extensively  over  New  England  and  the  eastern 
states.  Because  their  ancestors  were  accustomed  to  the 
mountains  of  Scotland,  these  cattle  seem  to  thrive  well 
on  our  hillsides.  They  are  medium  in  size,  with  a  tend- 
ency toward  beefiness.  The  color  is  reddish  brown  or 
white,  or  a  combination  of  the  two.  The  horns  are  white, 
up-curving,  and  black-tipped.  The  body  is  large  and  the 
ribs  well  sprung.  This  breed  so  far  has  produced  no  cows 
that  equal  the  leading  ones  of  the  other  three  dairy  breeds. 
276.  The  Holstein-Friesian.  —  About  forty  years  ago, 
cattle  by  the  name  of  Holstein  and  Dutch-Friesian  were 


HOLSTEIN    Cow. 

This  cow,  Johanna  Rue,  gave  28,403.7  lb.  of  milk  in  one  year. 

brought  into  this  country  and  sold  as  different  breeds. 
Holstein  is  a  province  of  North  Germany,  and  Friesland, 
a  district  of  Holland.  The  cattle  from  the  two  places 
were  similar ;  and,  after  considerable  discussion,  the 
importers  came  together  and  agreed  to  call  them  Holstein- 
Friesian.  Recently,  the  single  name  Holstein  has  been 
used  for  this  breed. 


376  CATTLE 

The  Holsteins  are  now  a  very  popular  breed,  particu- 
larly where  milk  is  sold  by  the  quart  rather  than  on  the 
fat  basis.  In  the  Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition  test,  15 
Holstein  cows  each  made  a  daily  average  of  53.4  pounds 
of  milk  for  120  days,  as  compared  with  41.5  for  the 
Jerseys.  A  Holstein  owned  by  Powell  Brothers  of  Penn- 
sylvania produced  a  daily  milk  yield  of  122^  pounds.  A 
recent  California  test  showed  30,318J  pounds  in  one  year. 
Holstein  milk,  however,  is  far  less  rich  than  Jersey  or 
Guernsey  milk.  The  Holsteins  are  black  and  white  in 
color,  large  in  build,  with  white  horns,  usually  black- 
tipped,  and  with  a  U-shaped  udder. 

277.  Fat  in  Milk.  — Experiments  have  shown  that  feed- 
ing can  afifect  only  the  quantity  of  milk,  not  the  per  cent  of 
fat  in  milk.     However,  it  is  known  that  the  per  cent  of  fat 

(1)  increases  as  the  cows  approach  the  period  of  dryness ; 

(2)  as  the  last  portion  of  milk  is  being  drawn  from  the 
udder  ;  and  (3)  as  the  time  between  milkings  is  shortened. 
The  following  is  the  average  per  cent  of  milk  fat  of 
several  thousand  American  cows  of  the  leading  breeds  : 

Holstein-Friesian 3.36 

Ayrshire 3.60 

Guernsey 5.30 

Jersey 5.60 

This  topic  will  be  treated  more  fully  in  the  next  chapter. 

278.  Feeding.  —  When  cows  are  fed,  their  bodily  de- 
mands are  first  taken  care  of.  In  other  words,  they 
maintain  themselves  before  producing  milk  or  extra  fat. 
Too  little  feed  for  a  dairy  cow  cuts  down  the  milk  yield, 
but  does  not  affect  the  quality  of  the  milk ;  an  excess  of 
feed  increases  the  total  weight  of  the  animal,  but  does  not 
affect  milk  yields  when  compared  with  the  result  of 
normal  feeding.  The  following  illustrations,  given  by 
Van  Norman,  show  this  : 


FEEDING 


•377 


Maintenance 


Gain 


Production 
15  lb.  4  %  milk 


Maintenance 


Fed  too  much 


Fed  just  enough 


Fed  too  little 


Production 
15  lb.  4  %  milk 

Maintenance 

Production 
10  lb.  4  %  milk 

The  different  Experiment  Stations  have  been  investi- 
gating th%4)est  rations  for  cattle.  The  nutritive  ratio 
for  a  daify  cow  should  be  near  1:6;  that  is,  one  pound  of 
digestible  protein  to  six  pounds  of  carbohydrate  and  fat. 
The  following  dairy  rations  are  suggested  by  the  Experi- 
ment Station  of  Indiana*, 


Ration  I 

Clover  hay  ...  18  pounds 

Corn 5  pounds 

Wheat  bran 

or  oats     ...  6  pounds 

Cottonseed  meal   .  1  pound 


Ration  II 

Corn  silage 
Cow  pea  hay    . 
Corn  stover 
Corn  .... 
Cottonseed  meal 


30  pounds 

10  pounds 

2  pounds 

6  pounds 

1.5  pounds 


The  foregoing  ration  is  for  cows  weighing  1000  pounds, 
giving  22  pounds  of  railk  daily.  For  each  additional  three 
pounds  of  milk,  there  should  be  added  a  pound  of  the  ground 
feed  mixture.  Heavier  cattle  should  have  an  increase  of 
roughage  about  in  proportion  to  the  increase  in  weight. 

In  feeding  baby  beef  (beef  cattle  between  one  and  two 
years  of  age  and  weighing  less  than  1100  pounds)  it  is 
well  to  remember  that  young  animals  make  a  greater  gain 
in  weight  on  a  given  quantity  of  food  than  older  animals 
do,  and  that  baby  beef  has  more  of  a  tendency  to  grow 
than  to  fatten,  or  to  "show  finish."  For  this  reason  baby 
beef  is  fed  a  heavy  ration  of  grain.     In  the  beginning  of 


378 


CATTLE. 


the  feeding  period,  however,  considerable  quantities  of 
such  feeds  as  clover,  cow  peas,  hay,  and  alfalfa  should  be  fed. 
Later,  an  increase  in  such  fattening  concentrate  as  linseed 
meal,  shelled  corn,  or  cottonseed  meal  is  recommended. 

279.    Care  of  Cattle.  —  Cattle  can  get  along  by  drinking 
once  a  day,  but  it  is  much  better  to  give  them  an  oppor- 


I  INTERIOR    OF    DaIRY    BaRN. 

tunity  to  drink  oftener.  Milk  cows  require  about  ten 
gallons  of  water  daily.  Cattle  exposed  to  bad  weather 
eat  more  than  those  properly  protected,  and  drop  in  the 
production  of  beef  or  milk.  A  part  of  the  energy  that 
should  go  to  production  goes  to  maintenance  instead. 

The  stables  should  be  well  lighted,  and  well  ventilated, 
and  should  be  kept  clean  and  sanitary.  Unsanitary  con- 
ditions not  only  decrease  the  yields  of  milk  or  beef,  but 
reduce  vitality  and  make  the  stock  more  susceptible  to 
tuberculosis  and  other  diseases.  System,  kindness,  and 
regularity  in  feeding  account  for  much  of  the  profits  with 


SUGGESTIONS  879 

cattle.  When  changes  are  to  be  made  from  one  kind  of 
feed  to  another,  the  new  feed  should  be  introduced  into 
the  old  at  first  in  very  small  quantities. 

Practical  Questions 

1.  How  do  cattle  serve  mankind?  2.  What  are  the  character- 
istics of  the  beef  breed?  3.  Name  the  beef  breeds.  4.  Describe 
a  beef  animal  which  you  may  have  seen.  5.  Describe  the  dairy  type 
of  cattle.  6.  How  does  a  Jersey  differ  from  a  Guernsey  ?  7.  What 
makes  the  Holstein  a  popular  breed?  8.  Which  breed  gives  the 
poorest  milk?  Which  the  richest?  9.  How  do  you  distinguish  be- 
tween maintenance  and  production?  10.  State  how  your  cattle  are 
cared  for  at  home.       11.   Does  it  pay  to  be  kind  to  animals ?    Why? 

Home  Exercises 

1.  Start  a  baby  beef  club  as  recommended  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  or  by  your  local  College  of  Agriculture, 
Keep  all  records  such  as  cost  of  feeding  and  daily  rations.  Club 
members  whenever  possible  should  grow  their  own  feed  in  a  distinct 
exercise.  All  the  details  which  the  club  members  need  to  know  will 
be  supplied  free  of  charge.    The  suggested  basis  of  reward  is  as  follows : 

(1)  Condition  of  beef  at  end  of  period,  judged  by  score 

card  for  beef  cattle 30 

(2)  Net  profit 30 

(3)  Selection  of  breed 20 

(4)  Story  of  project _20 

Total  score        100 

2.  In  dairy  sections  it  is  desirable  to  start  a  systematic  milk  testing 
exercise  for  dairy  cows.  Gret  in  touch  with  the  plans  and  awards  as 
provided  at  Washington  or  elsewhere.  Apart  from  the  exceedingly 
useful  practice  for  the  students,  this  work  may  be  very  helpful  to  the 
community. 

Suggestions 

Score  cards  for  cattle  provide  interesting  and  helpful  ways  for  fix- 
ing the  main  points  to  be  looked  for.  The  numbers  given  under 
"  perfect  score  "  indicate  structures  that  show  no  defects  and  unsound- 
ness. After  each  of  these  numbers,  in  the  next  column,  the  pupils 
may  place  "  the  score  "  or  number  they  think  the  animal  deserves. 

Scoring  should  be  done  in  a  neighboring  barn,  if  it  is  not  advisable 


880 


CATTLE 


to  bring  an  animal  to  the  school  yard.  This  work  should  be  first 
demonstrated  by  the  teacher  before  the  pupils  are  given  home  animals 
to  score. 

If  other  score  cards  not  given  in  this  book  are  desired,  for  example, 
a  score  card  for  beef  cattle,  send  to  your  State  Experiment  Station 
for  them ;  also  for  fuller  instructions. 

The  following  is  a  helpful  score  card  for  dairy  cattle. 


Pbrfkot 

SCORK 


Pupil's 
ScoRK 


General  Appearance 

Form,  triple  wedge  (See  Text)  .  .  .  . 
Quality,  hair  fine ;  skin  soft ;  bone  clean 
Constitution,  active,  vigorous,  healthy 


Head  and  Neck 

Muzzle,  clean-cut;  mouth  and  nostrils  large 

Eyes,  bright,  large 

Face,  lean,  long ;  expression  quiet   .     .     .     . 

Forehead,  long,  slightly  dished 

Ears,  yellow  inside;  texture  fine      .     .     .     . 
Neck,  medium  length ;  throat  clean     .     .     . 


Fore  and  Hind  Quarters 

Withers,  lean,  thin.     Shoulders,  angular  not  fleshy 
Hips,  wide  apart,  not  lower  than  spine     .... 

Rump,  long,  wide,  level 

Thighs,  thin,  long 

Legs,  straight,  short 


Body 

Chest,  deep,  low;  ribs  well  sprung  . 

Abdomen,  large 

Back,  lean,  straight.     Tail,  long,  slim 
Loin,  broad,  level 


Milk-secreting  Organs 

Udder,  large,  long,  well-curved  ;  teats,  evenly  placed 

Milk  veins,  large,  tortuous;  milk  wells  large    .     .     . 

Total 


10 


30 

6 
100 


REFERENCES  381 


References 


Manual  of  Farm  Animals.     Harper. 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals.     Plumb. 

Farmers'  Bulletins.     Washington,  D.C. 

55.   The  Dairy  Herd :  Its  Formation  and  Management. 
71.    Essentials  on  Beef  Production. 
106.    Breeds  of  Dairy  Cattle. 

183.   Meat  on  the  Farm  :  Butchering,  Curing,  and  Keeping. 
233.   Beef  and  Dairy  Types  of  Breeds. 
350.   The  Dehorning  of  Cattle. 
473.    Tuberculosis. 

480.   Practical  Methods  of  Disinfecting  Stables. 
Minnesota  :  Feeding  Dairy  Cows.     Haecker. 
(See  also  the  references  at  the  close  of  the  preceding  chapter.) 


CHAPTER   XXIX 

MILK  AND  ITS  PEODUOTS 


Such  as  have  need  of  milk,  and  not  of  strong  meat.  —  Hbbrkwb  v.  12. 


280.  Milk  as  Food.  —  Milk  is  one  of  the  commonest 
articles  of  diet.  It  contains  all  the  food  elements  necessary 
for  growth.  Milk  not  only  ranks  high  in  nourishing  value, 
but,  unlike  vegetables,  it  is  almost  completely  digested. 
Milk  is  also  a  very  cheap  food.     Four  pounds  of  milk  (two 


Milk  Pails. 

quarts),  costing  twelve  cents,  will  build  the  same  amount 
of  tissue  as  one  pound  of  sirloin  steak,  costing  twenty- 
eight  cents;  and  five  pounds  of  skim  milk,  costing  six 
cents,  contain  as  much  nourishment  as  a  pound  of  the 
best  beef,  costing  five  or  six  times  as  much.  So  far  as  we 
know,  milk  has  always  been  an  important  human  food  ;  and 
with  its  products,  butter  and  cheese,  it  is  now  a  popular 
food  among  all  civilized  people. 

382 


DEFINITIONS  383 

281.  The  composition  of  the  average  milk  of  5552  Amer- 
ican cows,  as  compiled  by  Dr.  Van  Slyke  of  the  Geneva, 
New  York,  Experiment  Station  is  as  follows  : 

Protein 3.2  per  cent 

Fat 3.9  per  cent 

Carbohydrate 5.1  per  cent  » 

Salt 7  per  cent 

Water 87.1  per  cent 

Protein  is  present  in  the  milk  in  the  form  of  casein  and 
albumin.  Albumin  forms  less  than  one  fourth  of  the  pro- 
tein. Casein  is  the  curd  formed  in  milk  when  it  sours. 
The  greater  part  of  cheese  is  curd.  The  carbohydrate 
occurs  as  milk  sugar.  Together  with  the  casein  it  gives 
skimmed  milk  and  buttermilk  their  value  as  foods.  Milk 
sugar  is  separated  from  milk  by  evaporating  the  whey. 
The  salts  supply  the  minerals  needed  in  bones. 

282.  Definitions.  —  iSkim  milk  is  what  is  left  after  the 
cream  has  been  removed.  Cream  is  the  layer  of  the  milk 
that  rises  to  the  surface  on  standing ;  it  is  rich  in  butter 
fat.  Evaporated  cream  has  lost  a  considerable  portion  of 
its  water  by  evaporation.  Buttermilk  is  the  residue  from 
cream  in  churning.  Pasteurized  milk  is  milk  that  has 
been  slowly  heated  to  about  160°  F.  for  about  20  minutes, 
to  kill  disease  germs,  and  then  rapidly  cooled.  Sterilized 
milk  is  milk  that  has  been  brought  to  the  boiling  point, 
to  destroy  all  germs.  Condensed  milk  is  a  form  of  milk 
that  has  lost  considerable  water  by  evaporation.  Certified 
milk  is  milk  which  is  sold  in  sterilized  bottles  and  for 
which  a  certain  degree  of  purity  is  guaranteed  by  the 
producer.  It  is  produced  and  bottled  under  the  most 
sanitary  conditions.  Butter  is  the  condensed  mass  of 
ripened  cream  containing,  in  addition  to  fat,  certain  other 
substances,  as  salt  and  water.  Whey  is  what  is  left  over 
after  the  casein  and  fat   have    been   removed    in   cheese 


384  XILK  AND  IT8  PRODUCTS 

making.  Milk  fat,  or  butter  fat,  is  the  fatty  or  oily  part 
of  milk.  It  is  explained  more  fully  two  paragraphs  below. 
283.  Quantity  of  Frodnctioii.  —  Some  instances  of  high- 
producing  cows  have  been  given  in  earlier  chapters.  The 
farmer  ought  to  know  just  how  many  pounds  of  milk  each 
gi  his  cows  gives  each  year.  It  will  not  do  to  guess  at  it. 
Many  a  cow  gives  a  foaming  pail  —  too  largely  foam  —  at 


Butter  Making  Outfit. 

the  first  of  a  period,  and  wins  golden  opinions,  but  falls 
off  sooner  than  the  milker  notes,  or  is  dry  for  an  unprofit- 
ably  long  period.  The  farmer  should  have  a  set  of  dairy 
scales  suspended  behind  the  cows,  and  a  ''*■  record  sheet" 
fastened  to  the  wall.  The  best  way,  then,  is  to  weigh  and 
record  each  cow's  milk  at  every  milking,  and  find  the 
totals  for  each  month.  The  little  time  needed  for  this  is 
more  than  repaid,  merely  by  the  added  interest  taken  by 
the  milkers  in  their  work.  But  fairly  accurate  knowledge 
of  the  cows'  yield  may  be  secured,  if  milk  is  weighed  only 
once  a  week,  both  night  and  morning,  on  a  fixed  day. 


THE  BABCOCK  TEST 


385 


284.  The  quality  of  milk  varies  mainly  in  the  matter  of 
the  fat.  Milk  fat  is  found  in  milk  as  microscopic  globules, 
one  drop  of  milk  containing  more  than  100,000,000  of  them. 
Eight  thousand  fat  globules  placed  side  by  side  would  reach 
one  inch.  The  globules  are  lighter  than  the  other  parts 
of  the  milk,  and  therefore  rise  to  the  surface  or  may  be 
removed  by  the  whirling  of  a  separator.  About  eighty- 
four  per  cent  of  butter  is  fat. 

285.  The  Babcock  Test.  —  In  1890,  Dr.  S.  M.  Babcock, 
chief  chemist  of  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station,  in- 


Testing  Milk  —  Babcock  Tester. 


vented  a  method  of  ascertaining  the  amount  of  fat  in  milk 
and  in  milk  products.  The  testing  outfit  consists  of 
(1)  a  centrifugal  machine,  (2)  two  or  more  test  bottles, 
(3)  a  pipette  for  accurately  measuring  the  milk,  (4)  an 
acid  measure,  and  (5)  common  sulphuric  acid.  A  small 
testing  outfit,  suitable  for  school  purposes,  or  for  a  small 
herd  of  cows,  can  be  bought  from  any  dairy  supply  house 
for  about  five  dollars. 

The  following  is  a  brief  outline  showing  the  successive 
steps  of  milk  testing  : — 


386  MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 

1)  Get  milk  near  60°  F. ;  mix  thoroughly  by  pouring  from  vessel 
to  vessel. 

2)  Fill  pipette  to  the  mark  with  milk. 

3)  Empty  pipette  in  test  bottle. 

4)  Fill  the  acid  measure  to  the  mark,  and  pour  the  acid  into  the 
test  bottle,  washing  down  any  milk  hanging  to  the  neck. 

o)  Shake  test  bottle  at  once  until  the  solution  has  a  coffee  color. 

6)  Place  an  even  number  of  test  bottles  in  the  pockets  of  the 
machine  and  whirl  five  minutes. 

7)  Add  hot  water  (hot  enough  to  make  the  fingers  uncomfortable) 
up  to  the  neck  of  the  bottles. 

8)  Whirl  one  minute. 

9)  Add  hot  water  up  to  mark  7  or  8  on  stem. 

10)  Whirl  one  minute. 

11)  Read  the  fat  column  at  the  temperature  of  about  130"  F. 

There  are  many  details  in  successful  milk  testing,  which 
can  be  mastered  by  observing  the  operation  in  a  dairy. 
Manufacturers  of  machines,  too,  inclose  minute  directions 
with  every  outfit  they  sell.  Only  a  few  precautions  are 
given  here : 

Do  not  get  any  acid  on  your  fingers,  or  allow  it  to  drop 
on  the  floor.  If  some  should  fall  on  the  woodwork  of 
the  schoolroom,  or  get  on  the  hands,  wash  with  water  at 
once.  Practice  is  needed  in  using  the  pipette.  Be  sure 
the  finger  is  dry,  when  allowing  the  pipette  to  drain  to 
the  mark.  In  a  small  machine,  especially  in  cold  weather, 
it  may  be  necessary  to  fill  the  jacket  on  the  outside  of  the 
bottles  with  hot  water.  Each  division  on  the  stem  of  the 
test  bottle  equals  0.2  per  cent  fat,  but  heat  expands  and 
cold  contracts  this  column.  If  white  cheesy  particles  ap- 
pear below  the  column  of  fat,  the  acid  may  have  been  too 
weak  or  too  little  in  quantity,  or  the  milk  may  have  been 
too  cold  or  not  properly  mixed  with  the  acid.  If  black 
particles  appear,  some  of  the  opposite  conditions  must 
have  been  present  in  too  high  a  degree.  White  bubbles 
at  the  top  show  that  the  water  was  too  hard.     All  glass- 


VALUE  OF  TESTS  387 

ware  should  be  washed  thoroughly  as  soon  as  the  test  is 
completed. 

286.  The  Value  of  Testing  Milk.  —  A  farmer  cannot  tell 
accurately  the  richness  of  a  cow's  milk  unless  he  uses  the 
Babcock  test.  He  is  much  more  likely  to  be  wrong  in  a 
guess  than  even  when  he  "  guesses  "  about  the  quantity  of 
milk.  The  amount  of  cream  on  the  milk  is  not  a  safe 
guide,  because  some  cream  contains  twice  the  butter  fat 
that  is  found  in  other  cream  seemingly  as  rich.  Cows, 
even  of  the  same  breed,  differ  widely  in  the  amount  of  fat 
in  the  milk.  We  have  spoken  above  of  the  need  of  weigh- 
ing each  cow's  milk,  to  know  how  much  she  gives.  It  is 
equally  needful  to  test  each  cow's  milk  occasionally,  or  to 
have  it  tested  at  the  creamery  or  school,  to  know  what 
kind  of  milk  she  gives. 

If  a  cow  in  a  herd  gives  6000  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year, 
she  is  pretty  sure  to  be  considered  a  very  good  cow. 
Her  milk,  however,  may  test  only  3  per  cent  for  butter 
fat.  Another  cow  giving  only  4000  pounds  may  test 
5  per  cent.  The  second  is  decidedly  the  more  profitable 
cow. 

The  farmer,  then,  who  uses  the  scales  for  quantity,  and 
the  Babcock  test  for  quality,  can  tell  which  of  his  cows 
pay  for  their  keep,  and  which  are  "boarders"  and  cost 
more  than  tljey  return  to  the  milk  pail.  Many  a  farmer, 
by  adopting  these  devices,  has  learned  that  he  has  been 
paying  for  the  privilege  of  milking  some  of  his  cows 
700  times  a  year.  Weighing  and  testing  make  it  possible 
to  weed  out  the  poor  cows  and  to  select  the  good  ones 
wisely.  And  weeding  ranks  with  breeding  and  feeding  in 
the  work  of  grading  up  the  herd. 

287.  Testing  has  a  Value  also  for  the  Fanner's  Patrons.  — 
The  buyer  of  milk  has  a  sure  means  of  protecting  himself 
against  skimming  or  watering  by  the  milkman.     Cities, 


888 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 


by  law,  require  all  milk  sold  to  contain  at  least  a  certain 
amount  of  fat  (3^  per  cent  to  4  per  cent)  ;  and  milk 
inspectors  stop  the  milkmen's  carts  on  the  street,  and 
take  samples  to  see  whether  this  standard  is  kept.  The 
creamery,  too,  is  able  to  be  absolutely  fair  to  its  patrons, 
now  that  it  pays  for  milk  and  cream  on  the  basis  of  fat. 
It  can  sell  different  grades  of  cream  conveniently,  too, 
knowing  precisely  what  it  does.  It  is  customary  to  sell  a 
30  per  cent  cream  (cream  of  which  30  per  cent  is  fat) 
for  "  whipping  cream,"  and  a  20  per  cent  cream  for  other 
purposes. 

288.  Milk-testing  associations  are  becoming  common.  It 
is  perfectly  possible  for  each  farmer  to  test  his  own  herd ; 
but   experience   proves   that   even   the   best  farmers  are 

likely  to  neglect  this 
important  work  even 
after  having  secured  the 
equipment.  Accord- 
ingly, the  enterprising 
farmers  of  a  neighbor- 
hood often  combine  to 
employ  an  expert  who 
shall  visit  and  test  each 
herd  at  regular  periods. 
Such  an  expert  is  often 
of  great  service  also  by 
his  suggestions  about 
the  feeding,  milking,  or 
other  care  of  cows. 

A  Testing  Associa- 
tion, too,  is  likely  to 
grow  into  a  Cooperative  Breeders'  Association,  to  secure 
the  service  of  a  more  costly  bull  for  the  several  herds  than 
any  individual  farmer  of  the  group  would  feel  able  to  buy. 


A  DiRTir  Cow. 

It  is  impossible  to  get  sanitary  milk 
from  such  a  cow. 


THE  CARE  OF  MILK  389 

289.  The  Care  of  Milk.  —  When  milk  comes  from  a 
healthy  cow,  it  is  ordinarily  perfectly  pure;  but  there  is 
no  other  food  that  is  so  easily  rendered  unfit  for  use  by 
carelessness  or  neglect.  Moldy  hay,  decayed  roots,  or 
garlic,  fed  to  cows,  will  give  their  taint  to  the  milk.     The 


A  Clean  Cow. 

dairy  herd  should  be  free  from  any  contagious  diseases, 
and  should  have  only  wholesome  food. 

But  milk  also  becomes  impure  from  carelessness  and 
ignorance  in  handling  and  shipping.  We  have  learned  in 
the  chapter  on  soils  that  there  are  countless  millions  of 
bacteria  living  in  and  above  the  soil.  They  also  abound 
in  the  atmosphere  of  stables,  houses,  and  creameries. 
Milk,  exposed  for  a  brief  time  in  open  vessels,  will  soon 
be  contaminated  by  them.  Finding  this  food  to  their 
liking,  especially  if  it  be  warm,  .they  grow  and  multiply 
at  an  enormous  rate.  These  bacteria  produce  sourness, 
objectionable  flavors,  or  sliminess. 


890 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 


Bacteria  may  enter  milk 

(1)  When  milking  is  done  in  unclean  surroundings. 

(2)  When   the   body   and   udder   of  the  cow  are  not  cleaned. 

The  flank  and  udder,  before  milking,  should  be  wiped 
with  a  clean,  damp  cloth. 

(3)  When  the  fore-milk,  or  first  milk  drawn  from  the  udder,  is 

not  rejected. 

(4)  When  the  milker  wears  unclean  clothing. 

(5)  When  milking  is  done  with  wet  hands.     Dirty  liquid   is 

almost  sure  to  drop  in  the  pail,  if  the  hands  are  wet. 

(6)  When  dirty  utensils  are  used  at  any  stage.     Milk  utensils 

should  be  so  made  as  not  to  have  crevices  and  corners  to 
harbor  dirt  and  thus  make  thorough  cleansing  of  them 
difficult. 

(7)  When  wide-flaring  milking  pails  are  u.sed. 

(8)  When  the  milk  is  exposed  to  a  dirty  atmosphere. 

Milk  cooled  rapidly  to  a  temperature  below  60°  F. 
keeps  better  than  uncooled  milk,  because  bacteria  multi- 
ply  very   slowly   at  that  temperature.     Many  dairymen 


Milk  from  the  Clean  Cow. 

When  the  milk  is  magnified, 
only  globules  of  fat  appear. 


Milk  from  the  Dirty  Cow. 

When  the  milk  is  magnified, 
dirt  appears  in  addition  to  the 
fat  globules. 


pasteurize  the  raw  milk.  This  process  kills  most  of  the 
bacteria  ;  and  the  milk  will  then  remain  sweet  for  several 
days  if  kept  at  a  low  temperature. 


BUTTER  AND   CHEESE  391 

290.  Cream  Separators.  —  The  old  method  of  placing  the 
milk  in  stone  crocks  and  allowing  it  to  stand  for  a  day  or 
two  for  the  cream  to  rise  is  too  slow  and  tedious  a  process 
for  a  large  dairy.  A  separator  was  invented  to  take  the 
cream  at  once  and  quickly.  A  cream  separator  is  what 
we  call  a  centrifuge  —  a  type  of  centrifuge  which  in  this 
case  contains  a  few  horizontal  disks  revolving  on  an  up- 
right axis.     Cream  is  lighter  than  the  rest  of  the  milk. 


Germs  of  the  Dairy. 

The  left-hand  dish  was  exposed  out  of  doors  for  five  minutes ;  the 
right-hand  dish  in  a  cow-barn  during  milking  for  only  five  seconds. 
Note  the  difference  in  the  number  of  bacteria  in  each. 

As  the  whole  milk  enters  the  separator  when  that  machine 
is  in  rapid  motion,  the  heavy  part  of  the  milk  is  thrown 
toward  the  circumference  of  the  disks,  and  the  lighter  part 
(or  cream)  is  drawn  off  near  the  center.  With  a  modern 
separator,  operated  either  with  an  engine  or  by  hand,  the 
cream  in  several  hundred  pounds  of  milk  can  be  quickly 
and  conveniently  gathered,  under  the  most  sanitary  con- 
ditions, immediately  after  the  milking. 

291.  Butter  and  Cheese.  —  Cream  only  is  used  in  making 
butter.     Commonly  the  cream  is  first  ripened,  that  is,  it 


392  MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 

is  kept  at  a  temperature  between  60°  and  76°  F.  for  about 
12  hours  for  the  proper  bacteria  to  multiply.  At  the  end 
of  this  time,  being  now  slightly  sour,  thick,  smooth,  and 
glossy,  it  is  ready  for  churning,  which  condenses  the  butter 
fat  and  parts  of  the  other  components  into  granules  or 
lumps  the  size  of  wheat  grains.  The  butter  is  now  re- 
moved from  the  churn,  washed  in  cold  water,  salted, 
worked,  and  placed  in  tubs  or  made  up  into  pound  pack- 
ages for  the  market.  Many  of  the  best  creameries  have 
begun  recently  to  make  butter  from  sweet  cream. 

Skimmed  milk,  whole  milk,  or  cream  may  be  used  in 
making  cheese.  To  make  American  cheese,  rennet  is  used 
to  curdle  the  casein.  The  milk  or  cream  is  then  heated 
in  a  vat  until  hardened.  After  the  whey  has  been  strained 
off,  the  curd  is  salted,  pressed,  and  cured.  Cottage  cheese 
is  merely  the  curd  of  milk  that  has  been  curdled  without 
the  use  of  rennet.     This  kind  of  cheese  is  eaten  fresh. 

292.  Ice  Cream.  —  One  of  the  valuable  products  of  milk, 
highly  relished  by  nearly  all  people,  is  ice  cream.  Ice 
cream,  to  be  sure,  is  not  frozen  cream,  as  its  name  would 
indicate,  although  a  considerable  part  of  it  should  be 
cream.  Ice  cream  is  usually  a  mixture  of  milk,  cream, 
sugar,  and  a  flavoring  material.  To  this  mixture  are  often 
added  some  eggs,  corn  starch,  or  gelatin.  The  latter 
substances  give  better  body  to  the  product.  Some  people 
prefer  one  flavor  ;  others,  another.  Some  wish  the  ice 
cream  "  rich  "  in  cream ;  others  do  not.  Some  desire  it 
very  sweet ;  others  prefer  only  a  little  sugar. 

People  who  make  their  own  ice  cream  have  one  advan- 
tage. They  know  its  composition  and  the  degree  of  clean- 
liness practiced  in  making  it.  Sickness  occasionally  fol- 
lows the  eating  of  ice  cream.  The  common  cause  of  this 
sickness  is  unclean  or  rusty  utensils.  Since  ice  cream  is 
now  consumed  in  immense  quantities  in  both  city  and 


SUGGESTIONS  393 

country,  care  must  be  taken  that  it  is  clean,  wholesome, 
and  sanitary  in  every  particular. 

Practical  Questions 

1.  Give  the  composition  of  milk.  2.  Define  the  following  terms : 
butter  fat,  cream,  sterilized  milk,  whey.  3.  What  is  the  purpose 
of  the  Babcock  test?  4.  What  diseases  may  be  transmitted  to 
man  by  unhealthy  cows?  5.  Discuss  the  relation  between  bacteria 
and  milk.  6.  How  do  bacteria  get  in  milk  ?  7.  Are  all  milk 
bacteria  harmful  ?  8.  Explain  the  process  of  butter  making  as  you 
have  seen  it.  9.  How  does  your  father  dispose  of  his  milk  ? 
10.  What  is  the  best  way  of  washing  milk  utensils?  11.  Should 
the  cows  be  fed  during  milking  time  ?  12.  Why  should  a  farmer 
keep  records  of  his  cows? 

Home   Exercises 

1.  Report  on  the  following  — 

1.  Number  of  pounds  of  milk  annuajly  produced  by  the  home 

herd. 

2.  Number  of  cows. 

3.  Number  of  pounds  per  cow. 

4.  Number  of  pounds  of  butter  fat  per  cow. 

5.  Income  of  the  dairy. 

2.  It  is  important  on  the  farm  to  keep  careful  and  exact  records. 
Let  each  boy  of  the  class  take  one  cow  and  test  her  milk  for  fat  once 
a  week  for  two  months,  using  the  school  tester  if  there  is  none  at 
home.  It  is  better  to  test  the  entire  milking  of  one  cow  thoroughly  for 
a  number  of  successive  weeks  than  to  come  to  quick  conclusions  on 
certain  members  of  the  herd  from  one  or  two  tests. 

3.  Take  apart  your  cream  separator  and  describe  all  the  parts. 

4.  Describe  your  own  dairy  from  a  sanitary  standpoint. 

Suggestions 

1 .  One  of  the  most  useful  pieces  of  apparatus  for  real  work  in  a 
school  is  the  Babcock  tester.  Aside  from  its  practical  value,  the 
testing  of  milk  is  an  interesting  and  fascinating  experiment.  Milk 
from  different  cows  may  be  brought  from  home,  if  there  is  no  tester 
there.     As  soon  as  the  practical  value  of  a  tester  has  been  made  clear 


394  MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 

in  school,  more  farmers  may  purchase  them.     The  school  in  this  way 
serves  the  community. 

2.  Those  who  are  not  producers,  but  only  consumers  of  milk,  will 
be  interested  in  tests  for  milk  preservatives.  If  a  trace  of  formalin  (a 
very  common  preservative)  has  been  added  to  milk  to  keep  it  from 
becoming  sour,  pour  a  little  of  the  milk  in  a  cup  together  with  a  few 
drops  of  sulphuric  acid,  having  in  it  a  little  iron  chloride  (a  teaspoon- 
f  ul  of  the  iron  solution  to  a  pint  of  acid) ;  stir  the  solution.  A 
purple  color  shows  the  presence  of  formalin. 

References 

Modern  Methods  of  Testing  Milk  and  Milk  Products.     Van  Slyke. 
Principles  and  Practice  of  Butter  Making.     McKay  and  Larson. 
First  Lessons  in  Dairying.     Van  Norman. 
Milk  and  Its  Products.     King. 
A. B.C.  in  Cheese  Making. 
Farmers'  Bulletins.     Washington,  D.C. 
42.   Facts  about  Milk. 
63.   Care  of  Milk  on  the  Farm. 
74.    Milk  as  Food. 
166.   Cheese  Making  on  the  Farm. 
241.    Butter  Making  on  the  Farm. 
413.   The  Care  of  Milk  and  its  Use  in  the  Home. 
490.   Bacteria  in  Milk. 


CHAPTER   XXX 
HOESES 


A  horse  t  a  horse  !  my  kingdom  for  a  horse  !  —  Shakespeark. 


293.  The  Story  of  the  Horse.  —  The  horse  was  domesti- 
cated before  historic  times.  Herds  of  wild  horses  roamed 
over  Europe  before  Greece  and  Rome  became  prominent 
in  human  affairs.  "  It  is  a  well-known  fact,"  says  Pro- 
fessor Marsh,  "that  the  Spanish  discoverers  of  America 
discovered  no  horses  on 
this  continent,  and  that 
the  modern  horse  was 
consequently  introduced 
from  the  Old  World." 
Yet  America  was  the 
original  home  of  the 
horse.  Here  from  a 
five-toed  animal  about 
the  size  of  a  sheep  it  was 
evolved. 

This  was  perhaps  a 
million  years  ago.  First, 
there  was  an  increase  in 
size ;    second,  in   speed 

and  bone  development  ;  and  third,  elongation  of  the  head 
and  neck.  While  Alaska  and  northeastern  Asia  were  still 
connected  by  land  (these  countries  being  much  warmer 
then  than  at  present),  the  wild  horses  migrated  across  the 

896 


Blooded  Saddle  Mare. 


396  B0R8ES 

isthmus  and  finally  spread  over  all  the  fertile  areas  of  the 
Old  World.  The  horses  that  were  left  in  America  died 
out,  meanwhile.  Only  a  few  fossil  remains  have  been 
preserved  in  places  like  the  old  lake-basins  of  Utah  and 
Wyoming. 

According  to  a  legend  of  ancient  Greece,  the  horse  was 
created  by  Neptune  as  a  result  of  a  contest  between  him- 
self  and   Minerva.     Neptune,    the    god    of  the  sea,  and 


Horse  Barn. 

Minerva,  the  goddess  of  wisdom,  vied  with  each  other  to 
confer  the  most  valuable  gift  upon  mankind.  Minerva 
created  the  olive  tree,  which  was  to  feed  the  hungry  over 
all  the  world.  Neptune,  after  having  studied  the  needs  of 
man,  struck  his  trident  upon  the  earth,  from  which  there 
sprang  a  prancing  steed,  that  would  serve  its  master  in 
peace  and  war. 

294.  Origin  of  the  Two  Great  Types.  —  The  methods  of 
warfare  during  the  middle  ages  had  much  to  do  with 
forming  our  present  types  of  horses.     During  the  age  of 


ORIGIN   OF  THE  TWO   GREAT  TYPES 


897 


heavy  armor,  when  well-armed  knights  weighed  about 
four  hundred  pounds,  heavy  horses  were  necessary  to 
support  them.  This  was  the  chief  reason  for  the  develop- 
ment of  heavy  horses.      Laws  were  passed  in  medieval 


Percheron  Stallion. 

England  condemning  all  stallions  weighing  less  than  1200 
pounds. 

But  when  horse  breeders  had  thus  developed  an  animal 
of  great  weight  and  strength,  the  invention  of  gunpowder 
and  firearms  made  heavy  horses  relatively  less  useful  in 
war.  Fleetness  of  foot,  quick  action,  and  light  weight 
were  now  needed.  Europe  then  secured  several  varieties 
of  lighter  horses  and  began  to  breed  horses  of  the  type 
more  serviceable  under  the  new  conditions  of  warfare. 


S9d 


HORSES 


Horses  to-day  serve  many  purposes,  and  the  breeder 
modifies  their  form  to  suit  these  purposes ;  but  the  two 
historic  classes  tliat.were  developed  by  the  needs  of  war 
constitute  still  the  two  general  types  that  persist  in  city 
and  country. 

The  main  contrasts  between  the  two  types  of  horses  are 
shown  in  the  following  table  : 


Hkatt  or  Dbapt  Horses 

LlOBT  OK  Spebd  HoKsca 

Weight .     . 

More  than  1500  pounds 

Less  than  1500  pounds 

Appearance 

Blocky,  massive,  compact 

High,  active,  smooth 

Neck      .     . 

Short,  thick,  broad 

Long,  thin,  narrow 

Body      .     . 

Round,    heavily-muscled, 
massive 

Deep,  light-muscled,  rangy 

Legs .     .     . 

Short 

Long 

Feet  .     .     . 

Large 

Small 

Action   .     . 

Slow 

Quick 

295.  Heavy  or  draft  horses  are  used  for  city  teaming,  for 
logging,  and  for  such  purposes  of  the  farm  as  require 
great  strength  like  plowing.  They  often  are  crossed  with 
lighter  horses  to  obtain  the  common  farm  horse. 

The  four  leading  breeds  of  draft  horses  are  the  Per- 
cheron,  the  Clydesdale,  the  Belgian,  and  the  Shire. 

(a)  The  Percheron  came  from  La  Perche,  France,  and 
was  introduced  into  the  United  States  more  than  a  cen- 
tury ago.  It  has  become  widely  popular  for  heavy 
dray  age,  both  in  the  city  and  country.  As  a  breed,  it 
shows  reliability  and  intelligence,  is  gentle,  easily  "bro- 
ken "  and  has  wonderful  powers  of  endurance.  A  dapple 
gray  color  is  held  in  high  favor,  although  many  are  jet 
black. 

(6)  The  Clydesdale  is  a  Scotch  breed.  It  was  first 
imported  into  America  about  two  centuries  ago.      The 


LIGHT  HORSES  399 

general  color  is  brown  or  bay,  with  a  white  blaze  on  the 
forehead  and  with  the  lower  parts  of  the  legs  white. 
Heavy  fringes  of  shaggy  hair  hang  from  and  below  the 
hocks.  Farmers  sometimes  criticize  the  breed  on  account 
of  this  hair. 

(c)  The  Belgian  Breed  is  a  native  of  Belgium.  Chest- 
nut is  the  most  common  color.  This  breed  was  intro- 
duced into  America  much  later  than  the  Percheron  or  the 
"Clyde." 

(df)  The  Shire  is  an  English  breed,  much  like  the 
Clydesdale,  but  somewhat  heavier  and  clumsier.     The  feet 


Percheron  Brood  Mares. 

of  the  Shire  are  too  flat,  the  legs  too  hairy,  and  the  move- 
ment too  sluggish,  to  suit  American  horse  fanciers,  and 
this  breed  has  not  met  with  much  favor  in  our  country. 
Bay  and  brown  are  the  most  common  colors. 

296.  Light  horses  are  bred  in  general  varieties  to  suit 
different  purposes. 

(a)  Road  horses  must  show  speed,  smart  action,  and 
quality.  The  physician,  the  liveryman,  and  the  rural 
mailman  generally  use  this  type.  They  should  be 
reliable  and  intelligent  (and  thus  must  be  able  to  learn 


400 


HORSES 


quickly  to  face  automobiles  without  shying).     They  range 
in  weight  from  900  to  1200  pounds. 

(6)  Carriage  horses  are  usually  slightly  heavier  than 
road  horses.  They  are  used  mostly  by  coachmen  and  cab 
drivers,  and  should  be  active  and  alert.     In  appearance 


Clydesdale  Stallion. 


they  should  show  "  style,"  and  be  short  in  the  back  with 
an  arched  neck. 

(c)  Wagon  horses  are  heavier  than  carriage  horses. 
They  may  weigh  as  much  as  1700  pounds,  and  thus  belong 
to  the  heavy  ty|>e.  They  are  used  in  the  express  service, 
in   the   artillery,  and   often   for   general   farm  purposes. 


CARE  OF  THE  HORSE 


401 


Wagon  horses  need  weight,  action,  and  strong  powers  of 
endurance. 

297.  Mules  are  hybrids,  or  crosses  between  mares  and 
jacks.  For  many  years  they  have  been  popular  in  our 
country.  According  to  the  last  census  there  were 
4,209,769  mules  in  the  United  States.  A  mule,  if  well- 
trained,  is  a  hard  and  a  faithful  worker.  In  the  mines,  on 
the  railroads,  in  the  lumber  camps,  in  the  army,  or  in 
doing  the  plain  work  of 


the  farm,  the  mule  shows 
remarkable  strength  and 
endurance,  resistance  to 
disease,  and  ability  to 
work  well  even  at  an 
advanced  age. 

298.  Care  of  the  Horse. 
—  (a)  Ventilation.  —  It 
has  been  estimated  by 
Professor  F.  H.  King 
that  it  is  necessary  to 
supply  4296  cubic  feet 
of  fresh  air  per  hour 
to  each  horse  weighing 
1000  pounds,  if  the  air 
is  to  remain  wholesome.  This  means  that  some  method 
for  the  taking  in  of  pure  air  and  for  the  escape  of  foul  air 
should  be  provided  in  the  stable.  Especially  in  winter  is 
the  problem  of  ventilation  a  difficult  one. 

The  King  system  of  barn  ventilation  draws  the  fresh 
air  in  near  the  ceiling  at  places  wliich  will  not  cause 
drafts,  and  removes  the  heavy  foul  air  through  openings 
near  the  floor.  These  openings  are  connected  with  long 
shafts  or  chimneys  extending  from  above  the  roof  to  within 
a  few  feet  of  the  stable  floor.     Some  of  the  warm  air  is 


Belgian  Stallion. 


402 


HORSES 


thus  locked  in  between  the  ceiling  and  the  lower  opening 
into  the  shaft.  If  the  stables  become  too  warm,  a  door 
may  be  opened  in  the  shaft  near  the  ceiling,  which  will 
release  the  heated  air  more  rapidly. 

(6)  Cleaning.  —  It  is  a  good  practice  to  sponge  off  the 
horse  with  cold  water  when  it  has  come  in  sweaty  from 
the  field.  Washing  cools  the  skin  and  is  a  good  treat- 
ment for  hot  shoulders.     Currying  not  only  removes  the 

dirt,  but  opens  the  skin 
pores.  The  feet  need 
frequent  attention. 
Thrush,  a  foul-smelling 
discharge  of  the  frog 
of  the  foot,  may  usually 
be  prevented  by  keeping 
the  feet  and  the  stall  floor 
clean.  Dirty  stables  are 
unsanitary,  and  promote 
general  diseases. 

(c)  Abuse.  —  There 
are  physical  limits  to 
the  power  of  a  horse  to 
endure  exposure  to  heat, 
cold,  or  rain.  Unfortunately,  a  horse  cannot  tell  when 
it  is  tired  or  does  not  feel  well.  Workers  around  dumb 
animals  should  be  on  the  lookout  for  signs  of  distress,  and 
remember  that,  like  themselves,  these  animals  have  the 
feelings  and  weaknesses  of  the  flesh. 

(rf)  Feeding.  —  A  good  farmer  takes  pride  in  the 
appearance  of  his  horses.  He  wants  them  to  look  well, 
better,  perhaps,  than  those  of  his  neighbors.  He  knows 
that  they  must  not  only  be  curried  and  brushed  every 
morning,  but  be  given  regularly  good  nourishing  food  in 
proper  quantities. 


Shire  Stallion. 


CARE  OF  THE  HORSE 


403 


When  working  hard,  horses  perspire  freely  and  need 
plenty  of  water.  Little  water,  however,  should  be  given 
a  horse  when  very  warm.  Unlike  cattle,  horses  lack  the 
extra  pouch  in  which  large  quantities  of  food  can  be 
stored  to  be  chewed  at  will.  Hence,  if  a  horse  is  deprived 
of  its  regular  meal,  it  is  likely  to  eat  and  drink  too  much 
the  next  time.  This  commonly  leads  to  nervousness 
and  digestive  difficulties.  Too  rapid  eating  can  usually 
be  controlled  by  having  a  large  feed  box,  and  by  feed- 
ing the  hay  before  the 
grain. 

Horses  differ  widely 
as  feeders.  Some  are 
known  as  "easy  feeders." 
Only  a  comparatively 
small  amount  of  feed  is 
needed  to  keep  them  in 
good  condition.  Others, 
on  the  other  hand,  es- 
pecially those  of  a  nerv- 
ous temperament,  eat 
rapidly,  digest  their  feed 
poorly,  and  consequently 
require  more  feed. 

Many  owners  feed  timothy  hay  and  oats  with  a  little 
corn,  the  year  around.  This  ration  gives  satisfactory  re- 
sults, but  it  is  better  and  often  cheaper  to  vary  the  diet  now 
and  then.  During  the  cold  months,  when  heat-producing 
substances  like  corn  are  needed,  the  proportion  of  corn 
should  be  increased  to  perhaps  equal  parts  by  weight  of 
corn  and  oats.  This  will  reduce  the  cost.  Also  the  pro- 
portipn  of  hay  should  be  increased  when  the  horse  is  idle. 
At  hard  work  the  energy  of  the  horse  is  needed  for  action, 
not  for  digestion.     The  energy  in  grains  is  more  easily 


Pair  of  Mules. 


404 


nORSES 


released  than  the  energy  in  liay.  But  timothy  hay,  oats, 
and  corn  are  all  members  of  the  grass  family.  Hence  the 
addition  of  a  little  clover  hay,  alfalfa,  and  cottonseed  meal 
adds  variety.  The  clover  hay  must  be  free  from  dust  or 
it  may  cause  "heaves." 

No  definite  quantities  of  feed  can  be  prescribed  for  a 
horse.  There  is  an  old  saying  the  "  the  eye  of  the  master 
fattens  his  cattle."  This  saying  means  that,  while  feeding 
standards  are  useful  if  followed  wisely,  feeders  must  use 
good  judgment. 

In  a  general  way  scientific  horse  feeders  seek  to  conform 
their  feeding  to  the  following  well-known  Wolff- Lehraann 
feeding  standards: 

Daily  Ration  per  1000  Pounds  Live  Weight 


Dbv  M attbr 


Pbotsin 


CABBOnTDBATE 


Fats 


NUTBl- 

•nvB 
Ratio 


Light  work  . 
Medium  work 
Heavy  work   . 


20  pounds 
24  pounds 
26  pounds 


L5  pounds 
2  pounds 
2.5  pounds 


19.5  pounds 
11  pounds 
13.3  pounds 


.4  pound 
.6  pound 
.8  pound 


1:7 

1:6.2 

1:6 


As  just  said,  however,  good  judgment  must  at  all  times 
be  exercised.  A  driving  horse  may  be  idle  in  the  stall  for 
weeks  and  then  taken  on  the  road  during  a  day  or  two  for 
long  drives,  which  may  be  followed  again  by  a  long  period 
of  enforced  idleness.  Of  course,  the  general  principle  of 
reducing  the  concentrates  and  of  increasing  the  roughages 
for  idle  periods  must  be  followed.  But  more  than  all  else 
is  the  need  of  noting  the  condition  of  the  coat  and  of  the 
excreta,  and  the  general  appearance  of  the  animal.  If 
feeders  read  and  follow  these  signs  aright,  they  will  find 
that  they  are  on  the  track  of  the  generally  accepted  feed- 
ing standards. 


THE  COLT 


406 


299.  The  Colt.  —  The  raising  of  a  colt  is  an  excellent 
home  project.  There  is  perhaps  no  farm  animal  more 
interesting  to  young  people  than  a  colt.  It  is  certainly, 
too,  a  worth-while  project.  If  a  member  of  the  class 
decides  to  raise  a  colt  as  a  home  exercise,  it  would  be  well 
to  keep  a  few  things  in  mind.  A  colt  should  be  made  to 
understand  that  the  boy  is  his  master.  A  colt  learns 
quickly  and  seems  in  after  years  never  to  be  able  to  forget 
the  lessons  learned  in 
its  early  days.  For  this 
reason  it  should  always 
be  treated  kindly  but 
firmly  and  never  be  made 
to  fear.  We  should  at- 
tempt to  teach  a  colt  a 
little  only  at  a  time  and 
have  this  lesson  well 
learned  before  the  next 
one  is  presented.  The 
colt  should  become  ac- 
customed to  a  halter 
early  in  life.  The  halter  must  be  a  good  one,  for  if  the 
colt  breaks  it  once  he  will  try  to  do  it  the  second  time. 

At  two  years  of  age  he  should  be  introduced  to  the  bit 
and  harness.  The  bit  should  be  smooth  and  the  harness 
loose.  Lines  may  be  fastened  to  the  bridle  and  the  colt 
driven  around  a  little  each  day  and  taught  the  meaning  of 
the  words  "whoa"  and  "get  up."  In  all  his  relations  to 
the  young  animal  the  trainer  should  be  gentle  but  firm. 

The  colt  should  be  trained  to  work  double  before  single. 
His  partner  should  be  a  quiet,  active  and  reliable  animal. 
It  is  always  well  to  have  separate  lines  on  the  colt  the  first 
few  times  he  is  hitched  double. 

If  the  colt  is  to  be  trained  to  work  single,  it  is  well  to 


Raising  a  Colt. 


406  BORSBS 

hitch  him  to  a  good  strong  vehicle  witli  a  seat  from  which 
it  is  easy  to  get  on  or  off.  A  few  lessons  poorly  taught  at 
this  stage  of  the  colt's  education  will  lessen  his  value  for 
service  for  all  time.  He  should  be  made  to  be  quiet  and 
stand  still  until  the  driver  gives  the  signal  to  proceed. 
He  must  be  taught  confidence  in  himself  and  respect  for 
his  master  and  thus  should  be  led  to  see  that  automobiles, 
trains,  trolleys,  and  other  unusual  sights  by  the  roadside 
will  not  harm  him. 

Practical  Questions 

1.  Give  a  brief  account  of  the  early  history  of  the  horse.  2.  How 
has  warfare  affected  the  development  of  horses?  3.  Contrast  a 
heavy  horse  with  a  light  horse.  4.  What  are  the  characteristics  of 
the  Percheron?  5.  To  which  class  does  the  general  farm  horse 
belong?  6.  Discuss  the  care  of  horses.  7.  Give  a  ration  for  a 
farm  horse.  8.  How.  would  you  supply  fresh  air  to  a  horse  stable? 
9.  Can  a  horse  feel  pain  ?  10.  Will  a  horse  respond  to  kind  treat- 
ment ?      11.  If  your  father  gives  you  a  colt  will  you  agree  to  raise  it? 

Home  Exercises 

1.  Purdue  Circular  No.  29  gives  a  list  of  defects  and  unsoundnesses 
in  horses.  With  a  complete  list,  such  as  that  one,  examine  your 
horses  and  report  their  condition. 

2.  A  Colt  Club  Project  is  interesting  and  instructive  for  boys  and 
girls. 

The  project  should  cover  at  least  a  year  and  should  include  ques- 
tions of  care,  management,  and  cost.  As  recommended  by  several 
state  colleges  of  agriculture  the  basis  of  award  may  be  as  follows : 

1)  Management  shown  in  training 25 

2)  Cost  of  keeping 25 

3)  Condition 25 

4)  Story :  My  Year's  Work  with  the  Colt .    .     .     .      25 

Total  Score 100 

3.  Report  in  detail  on  the  feeding  and  care  of  your  father's  horses. 

4.  From  the  local  assessor  obtain  the  number  of  horses  in  your 
district  and  their  value.     Is  the  number  and  value  increasing? 

5.  What  does  it  cost  your  father  to  keep  his  horses? 


SUGGESTIONS 


407 


Suggestions 

1.   A   member  of  the  claas   should   relate   the   story  of  "Black 
Beauty." 

Score  Card  for  Light  Horses 


Appearance 

Height,  measure  in  hands 
Form,  well  built,  smooth 
Quality,  smooth,  stylish    . 

Action,  active 

Temperament,  mild,  gentle 


Head  and  Neck 

Head,  lean,  well-carried 

Muzzle,  having  thin  lips,  large  nostrils      .     , 

Forehead,  broad 

Earn,  pointed,  wide  apart,  standing  forward  , 
Neck,  having  large  windpipe,  clean  .     .     .     , 


Fore  Quarters 

Legs,  straight  solid,  parallel,  slender 
Feet,  having  wide  frog  and  heel,  even 
Knees,  clean,  wide,  even 


Hind  Quarters 

Legs,  similar  in  form,  light  but  strong,  well-muscled 

Hocks,  wide,  straight,  clean-cut 

Feet,  having  wide  heel,  large  frog,  dense  horn    .     . 

Body 

Chest,  deep,  long 

Ribs,  loose,  well-curved 

Back,  straight,  muscular,  short 

Total 


Pbrfeot 

SCOEE 


45 


18 


18 


11 


100 


Pupil's 

Score 


2.  Go  to  a  barn  near  by  and  demonstrate  the  score  card  for  light 
horses  as  here  given.  Send  for  fuller  descriptions  and  for  the  score 
card  for  heavy  horses.     These  will  be  gladly  sent  by  the  State  Ex- 


40H  HORSES- 

periment  Station  free  of  charge.     The  county  agent  may  give  this 
demonstration. 

After  the  points  of  the  score  card  have  been  made  plain,  and  its 
use  is  thoroughly  understood,  each  student  should  score  every  horse 
at  home. 

References 

Productive  Horse  Husbandry.     (Jay. 
Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Anitnals.     Plumb. 
Manual  of  Farm  Animals.     Harper. 
The  Horse.     Roberts. 
TTie  Horse  Book.     Johnstone. 
Farmers'  Bulletins.     Wa.shington,  D.  C. 
37.   Market  Classes  of  Horses. 

137.   The  Preservation  of  Our  Native  Types  of  Horses. 

170.   Principles  of  Horse  Feeding. 

619.    Breeds  of  Draft  Horses. 

667.   Colts :  Breaking  and  Training. 
Circular  No.  29,  Live  Stock  Judging  for  Beginner.s.     Lafayette,  Ind. 


CHAPTER   XXXI 

SHEEP  AND   SWINE 


And  Abel  was  a  keeper  of  sheep,  hut  Gain  was  a  tiller  of  the  ground. 

—  Oekesis  IV.  2. 


300.  Where  Sheep  came  From.  —  The  wild  ancestors  of 
the  horse  and  ox  are  no  longer  in  existence  ;  but  the  parent 
stock  from  which  our  sheep  descended  can  still  be  found 


A  Flock  of  Sheep. 

in  the  mountains  of  Kamchatka,  Barbary,  and  Greece. 
From  the  earliest  times,  sheep  have  been  domesticated. 
Abraham  measured  his  wealth  in  sheep  and  cattle.  And 
as  "The  shepherds  abided  in  the  fields,  keeping  watch 
over  their  flocks  by  night,"  the  angels  sang  the  Good  Will 
Song.  On  his  second  voyage  to  America,  in  1493,  Colum- 
bus brought  over  the  sheep  that  became  the  ancestors  of 

409 


410 


8HEEP  AND   SWINE 


large  flocks   in  Mexico  and  in  the  southwestern  United 
States. 

While  there  are  many  breeds  of  sheep,  there  are  but  two 
main  types,  the  mutton  type  and  the  wool  type.  These 
types  have  been  developed,  to  a  great  extent,  by  breeding 
to  suit  the  needs  of  man.  If  mutton  is  needed,  the  body 
of  the  sheep  must  have  a  form  similar  to  that  of  beef 
cattle,  whereas,  if  the  body  is  to  produce  large  yields  of 

wool,  it  should  have  the 


Hampshire. 


general  figure  of  dairy 
cattle. 

301.  The  Mutton  Type. 
—  To  produce  mutton 
most  profitably,  sheep 
should  have  a  low,  stocky 
form,  great  width  of 
back,  shortness  of  leg, 
and  a  deep,  broad  chest. 
The  food  consumed  by 
the  mutton  animal 
should  go  principally  to  make  flesh  rather  than  wool. 
When  the  animal  is  killed  for  the  market,  the  carcass 
should  be  full  and  plump,  especially  in  the  regions  of  the 
valuable  cuts. 

The  mutton  breeds  are  divided  into  two  groups,  — 
medium  wools  and  long  wools.  This  division,  however,  is 
not  important.  It  is  not  made  on  meat  characteristics. 
There  can  be  in  fact  only  one  mutton  type ;  and  the 
market  cares  little  whether  the  sheep  have  long  or  medium 
wool,  or  black  or  white  faces,  if  they  are  only  well  devel- 
oped in  those  parts  whicli  produce  good  mutton. 

(a)  The  medium  wools  are  found  in  eight  different  breeds, 
of  which  the  leading  ones  are  the  Southdown,  the  Dorset, 
and  the  Shropshire. 


THE  FEEDING   OF  SHEEP 


411 


(1)  The  Southdowns  are  very  active,  but  are  easily  fat- 
tened. Tliey  are  small  and  hornless,  with  brown  faces 
and  legs.  The  Southdown  for  many  years  has  held  first 
place  in  the  best  markets.     Its  flesh  possesses  a  fine  flavor, 

(2)  7^e  Borsets  are  entirely  white.  Both  ewes  and 
rams  have  horns.  As  a  feeder,  the  Dorset  ranks  high. 
It   produces    well-nour- 


Shropshire. 


ished  lambs  early,  and 
these  may  quickly  be 
made  ready  for  the 
market. 

(3)  TTie  Shropshires 
are  dark  brown  in  faces, 
ears,  and  legs.  They 
rank  next  to  the  South- 
down in  mutton  pro- 
ducing qualities. 

(5)  The  longwoolshtivG 
three  different  breeds  of 

some  prominence  locally,  —  Leicester,  Cotswold,  'dnd  Lin- 
coln. In  all  three  the  sheep  are  of  great  size,  and  are 
covered  with  long,  coarse,  curling  fleeces.  The  long  wools 
are  English  breeds  and  are  not  extensively  raised  in  the 
United  States. 

302.  The  wool  t3rpe  has  the  Merinos  for  its  most  noted 
breed.  The  Merinos  produce  the  finest  and  heaviest 
weight  of  fleece.  They  have  large  folds  or  wrinkles  in 
the  skin,  which  increases  the  wool-bearing  surface.  The 
rams  carry  heavy  curved  horns.  The  fleece  is  short ;  and 
on  the  outside  it  is  usually  a  dirty  black  because  of  an 
exuding  oil. 

303.  The  Feeding  of  Sheep.  —  During  the  summer  it  is  the 
common  practice  to  allow  sheep  to  graze.  In  the  south,- 
where  the  grass  remains  green  the  year  around,  it  is  not 


412 


SHEEP  AND  SWINE 


customary  to  give  any  other  feed  to  the  wool-growing 
varieties.  This  fact  makes  possible  the  great  sheep 
ranches  of  Australia  and  of  the  southwestern  part  of  the 
United  States.  Sheep  that  must  be  cared  for  in  stables 
during  the  cold  months,  or  that  are  being  fattened  for  the 
market,  are  given  a  balanced  ration,  consisting  usually  of 
such  feeds  as  turnips,  oats,  corn,  bran,  middlings,  silage, 
clover,  and  hay.  "  Hothouse  lambs  "  are  marketed  when 
from  six  to  twelve  weeks  old.     The  feeding  is  "  forced  " 

to  get  the  finest  kind 
of  tender  meat.  An 
increasing  number  of 
lambs,  reared  on  the 
large  ranches  of  the 
West  until  a  few  months 
old,  are  shipped  East  for 
fattening. 

304.  Care  of  Sheep. — 
If  properly  managed, 
sheep  bring  quick  re- 
turns. In  England  and 
France,  where  a  careful  study  is  made  of  the  needs  of  the 
flock,  the  sheep  industry  is  one  of  the  most  profitable 
branches  of  farming.  In  most  of  America,  however,  sheep 
are  the  rarest  of  all  farm  animals. 

Sheep  are  good  foragers,  and  will  eat  food  which 
would  otherwise  be  wasted.  They  graze  freely  on  steep 
hillsides  and  in  grain  stubble,  and  they  glean  the  husks  of 
corn  that  are  abandoned  in  the  fields.  They  require  little 
labor,  and  need  but  scant  protection  through  the  winter, 
provided  the  enclosures  are  kept  dry  and  free  from 
draughts.  For  these  reasons,  the  raising  of  sheep  should 
be  encouraged  in  the  United  States. 

Sheep  are  not  subject  to  many  diseases ;  but  those  that 


Merino. 


BAI8ING  LAMBS 


418 


do  afflict  them  are  usually  fatal.  As  with  other  farm 
animals,  as  soon  as  sheep  become  sick,  especially  with  a 
contagious  disease  as  sore  eyes,  tick,  lice,  or  scab,  they 
should  be  quarantined,  or  separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
flock,  and  receive  special  attention.  We  should  always 
be  on  the  lookout  for  trouble  of  this  nature  and  be  able  to 
recognize  the  early  symptoms  of  common  sheep  diseases, 
in  order  to  avoid  heavy  losses  later  on.     If  internal  para- 


Cheviots. 

sites  in  the  brain  or  liver,  where  medicine  cannot  reach 
them,  are  the  cause  of  the  trouble,  the  animal  should  be 
killed  at  once  and  its  carcass  buried.  When  sickness  ap- 
pears, it  generally  pays  to  call  in  a  veterinarian  promptly, 
unless  the  farmer  has  had  considerable  experience  with 
sick  sheep.  Prevention  of  diseases  is  always  cheaper  and 
wiser  than  cure. 

305.  Raising  Lambs.  —  In  some  sections  of  our  country 
the  sheep  industry  is  an  important  one.  See  Appendix  A, 
Chart  X,  page  471.  School  boys  and  girls  in  these  regions 
should  be  glad  to  raise  a  lamb,  as  a  home  project.     They 


414  8UEEP  AND  SWINE 

shouHl  take  entire  charge  of  the  work  and  be  entirely 
responsible  for  the  results.  For  this  reason  it  is  well  to 
know  something  about  baby  sheep  before  starting. 

Of  all  farm  animals,  sheep  are  least  understood,  and  one 
reason  why  many  farmers  do  not  make  a  success  with 
sheep  is  because  they  do  not  understand  them.  This  is 
not  only  true  of  lambs  but  of  the  adult  sheep  also.  The 
babies  are  leggy  and  delicate  creatures.  "  They  are  prin- 
cipally legs,  the  connecting  body  being  simply  a  contriv- 
ance for  converting  milk  into  more  leg,  so  you  understand 
how  it  is  that  they  will  follow  the  flock  in  two  days  and 
are  able  to  take  a  trail  in  a  fortnight,  traveling  four  or  five 
miles  a  day,  falling  asleep  on  their  feet  and  tottering  for- 
ward in  the  way." 

The  first  day  or  two  of  their  lives  they  are  well-nigh 
helpless.  It  may  be  necessary  to  assist  them  to  their  first 
meals.  Sometimes  the  lamb  does  not  have  as  good  a 
mother  as  the  colt  or  calf  has.  It  often  happens  that  the 
mother  in  her  eagerness  to  forage  seems  to  forget  her 
child.  If  in  this  condition  the  lamb  becomes  dangerously 
chilled,  it  is  a  good  practice  to  immerse  it  in  warm  water 
to  bring  the  circulation  to  the  skin.  When  thus  warmed 
and  stimulated,  it  should  be  removed  from  the  bath  and 
rubbed  dry.  Lambs  should  be  kept  warm  and  dry  at  all 
times.  A  young  mother,  or  an  old  one,  which  is  not  well 
nourished  sometimes  disowns  her  bleating  child.  It  is 
then  advisable  for  the  raiser  to  teach  the  parent  a  few 
lessons  in  maternal  responsibility  by  confining  the  mother 
to  a  small  enclosure  while  the  baby  is  given  a  chance  to 
nurse. 

In  a  week  or  two  the  young  begin  to  nibble  at  solid 
foods,  as  grain  and  hay.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  encourage 
this  desire,  because  it  will  then  be  easier  to  wean  them  later. 
Put  a  little  grain  in  their  boxes  two  or  three  times  each 


RAISING  LAMBS 


415 


day,  as  much  as  they  care  to  eat.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
they  will  make  more  rapid  gains  in  weight  if  given  this 
additional  food. 

If  you  wish  to  sell  what  is  known  in  the  trade  as 
"  spring  lambs,"  it  is  not  necessary  to  wean  the  lambs  at 
all.  But  all  others  had  better  be  weaned  at  three  or 
four  months  of  age.  Do  not  fail  to  dock  the  tails  of  those 
which  are  intended  to  mature.     The  tail  is  not  needed 


HHBI 

,„.      .IK 

^^^HHBBBB 

? 

1^ 

■m 

Sheep  Feeding  in  Rape  Field. 

and  is  likely  to  become  filthy.  This  operation  should  be 
performed  when  the  lamb  is  about  ten  days  old.  Docking 
is  a  simple  process.  Take  a  mallet  and  chisel  or  pincers 
or  even  a  sharp  knife  and  one  good  cut  will  do  the  work. 
The  boy  who  raises  a  sheep  should  also  be  something  of 
a  nurse.  The  little  lamb  is  bound  to  be  overtaken  with 
many  ills,  such  as  sore  eyes,  sore  mouth,  constipation,  and 
diarrhea.  Each  trouble  requires  special  treatment,  and 
naturally  the  experiences  of  a  successful  sheep  farmer 
should  be  sought,  or  better,  perhaps,  the  advice  given  in 
a  government  publication. 


416  SHEEP  AND   SWINE 

One  thing  more  must  not  be  forgotten.  Dogs  are  the 
natural  enemy  of  sheep.  During  1915  according  to  the 
statistical  bureau  of  the  State  Department  of  Agriculture 
of  Pennsylvania  5808  sheep  were  killed  by  dogs  in  Penn- 
sylvania alone  and  3813  were  injured.  And  Pennsylvania 
is  not  a  leading  sheep  state.  The  bark  or  often  even  the 
presence  of  a  dog  may  create  a  stampede.  This  excites 
and  worries  the  sheep,  even  though  the  dog  does  no 
injury  directly.  Thus  chased  they  soon  become  exhausted 
and  rapidly  lose  weight.  The  collie,  however,  has  been 
bred  to  be  the  friend  and  companion  of  sheep.  Read  the 
charming  story  of  "  Wully "  in  Wild  Animals  I  Have 
Known^  and  you  will  readily  understand  why  sheep  will 
soon  have  confidence  in  a  good  sheep  dog. 

306.  Swine.  —  The  ancestors  of  our  modern  swine,  still 
roaming  at  large  in  various  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
excite  fear  rather  than  contempt.  The  wild  boar  is  a 
huge,  active  beast,  speedy  as  a  deer  and  tough  as  a  rhi- 
noceros. He  is  provided  with  a  pair  of  fierce-looking 
tusks,  that  make  him  no  mean  foe  of  the  lion  and  the 
tiger. 

To  many  the  domestic  pig  is  merely  a  filthy,  grunting 
creature,  acting  the  glutton  at  the  trough  or  wallowing  in 
the  mire.  In  justice  to  the  pig,  it  can  be  said  with  truth 
that  he  must  abide  by  the  conditions  imposed  on  him  by 
his  master.  He  prefers  a  clean,  dry  bed,  and  he  shows 
this  fact  if  he  has  a  fair  chance  to  do  so.  But  there  is 
little  evaporation  from  his  body  to  cool  his  skin,  and  he 
has  only  a  scant  supply  of  hair  for  protection  against  flies. 
So,  if  no  bath  is  at  hand,  he  naturally  wallows  in  the  mud 
as  the  best  means  of  keeping  comfortable  during  hot 
weather. 

307.  Types  of  Swine.  —  There  are  two  types  of  swine, 
the  lard  type  and  the  bacon  type.     These  types  have  been 


THE  BACON  SWINE  417 

bred  to  meet  two  different  market  demands.  We  learned, 
in  the  study  of  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  that  unlike  pur- 
poses cannot  best  be  served  by  one  type  of  animal,  but 
call  for  animals  of  contrasting  builds.  Swine  are  no  ex- 
ception to  this  rule.  The  choice  cuts  of  bacon  require 
one  type  of  swine ;  and  a  good  growth  of  the  lard- 
bearing  tissues  requires  another  type. 


Pigs  Feeding  on  Alfalfa. 

308.  The  bacon  swine  are  long  and  narrow.  They  have 
light  loins  and  shoulders  and  produce  a  high  proportion  of 
lean  meat.  Comparatively  few  bacon  swine  are  raised  in 
the  United  States,  for  the  reason  that  corn  is  not  a  profit- 
able feed  for  them,  and  that  the  foreign  trade  in  them  has 
never  been  developed  to  the  extent  that  the  trade  in  the 
lard  type  has  been.  In  the  northern  parts  of  the  country, 
however,  where  corn  is  still  a  doubtful  crop,  it  is  becoming 
more  and  more  common  to  raise  a  bacon  type. 

The  two  leading  breeds  of  bacon  swine  are  the  Large 
Yorkshire  (white  hogs,  with  erect  ears),  and  the  Tams- 


418 


8HEEP  AND  SWINE 


worth,  whose  chief  characteristics  are  a  red  color,  notably- 
long  snout,  and  erect  ears. 

309.  The  lard  type  calls  for  great  compactness  of  form, 
shortness  of  limb,  widtli  of  body,  and  readiness  to  lay  on 
fat  rapidly  and  early  in  life.  The  common  lard  breeds 
are  the  Berkshire,  the  Poland  China,  the  Chester  White, 
and  the  Duroc-Jersey. 

(a)  The  Berkshire  can  at  once  be  recognized  by  the 
"six  white  points," — one  on  the  face,  another  on  the  tail, 
and  one  on  each  foot.     The  ears  are  erect ;  the  face  dished  ; 

the  general  color,  black. 
This  breed  is  very  pop- 
ular in  the  South.  A 
feed  high  in  protein,  with 
little  oil,  tends  to  give 
the  Berkshire  a  bacon 
form.  As  a  breed,  it 
matures  early  and  pro- 
duces good  litters. 

(6)  The  Poland  China 
is  also  black  in  color, 
usually  with  patches  of  white  about  the  head,  legs,  and 
tail.  The  ears  are  lopping.  This  breed  is  a  strong 
favorite  in  the  corn  belt. 

(c)  The  Chester  White  originated  in  Chester  County, 
Pennsylvania.  The  members  of  the  breed  are  entirely 
white  with  the  exception  of  an  occasional  black  spot.  It 
was  formerly  the  heaviest  breed  in  the  country,  specimens 
having  been  exhibited  which  weighed  over  1000  pounds. 
During  recent  years,  however,  the  breeder  aims  to  secure 
a  greater  refinement  and  smaller  size  rather  than  excessive 
bulk  and  weight. 

(rf)  The  Duroc-Jersey  is  red  in  color,  having  large, 
lopping  ears,  wide  backs,  and  an  unusually  deep  body. 


Berkshire. 


CARE  OF  SWINE 


419 


The  breed  is  becoming  very  popular  in  the  central 
states. 

310.  Care  of  Swine.  —  "  The  hog  does  not  need  a  palace 
or  an  upholstered  cage,  nor  does  he  prosper  in  a  dungeon." 
Some  farmers  go  to  extremes  in  erecting  an  expensive  hog 
house  with  conveniences  that  add  little  to  the  comfort  of 
the  animals.  Others,  on  the  other  hand,  house  their  swine 
in  a  filthy  hole  under  a  stack  or  beneath  a  few  rails  cov- 
ered with  a  little  fodder. 
Swine  need  quarters 
which  are  well-lighted, 
well-aired,  dry,  and 
clean.  It  is  best  to 
locate  the  hog  house 
near  a  pasture  lot  or 
orchard,  so  as  to  give 
them  a  runway  and  a 
place  in  which  to  wallow.  Duroc-Jersey. 

Some  successful  hog  raisers  are  not  in  favor  of  hog  wal- 
lows, for  the  reason  that  wallows  soon  become  filthy  and 
thus  spread  infectious  diseases,  particularly  cholera.  Such 
dangers,  of  course,  must  be  guarded  against.  If  the  wal- 
low is  so  arranged  as  to  provide  for  the  circulation  of  the 
water,  and  if  a  little  coal  tar  is  added  occasionally  to  the 
water,  scant  fear  need  be  entertained  on  this  score.  If 
the  farm,  however,  has  running  water  in  the  bam,  it  is  not 
costly  to  build  cement  baths  in  the  hog  yard. 

If  cholera,  the  most  dreaded  hog  disease,  does  break 
out,  great  care  must  be  taken  to  establish  a  strict  quar- 
antine. Healthy  animals  must  be  kept  apart  from  those 
afflicted.  After  the  hogs  that  have  died  from  the  disease 
have  been  buried  or  burned,  the  entire  quarters  should  be 
sprayed  with  a  five  per  cent  solution  of  crude  carbolic 
acid. 


420  SHEEP  AND  SWINE 

311.  Feeding.  —  The  results  of  extensive  and  careful 
experiments  on  hog  feeding  carried  on  by  the  Experiment 
Station  at  Manhattan,  Kansas,  are  as  follows : 

1)  "  The  feeding  of  corn  alone  in  dry  lots  does  not  give 
satisfactory  results. 

2)  "  A  ration  of  corn  and  alfalfa  hay  is  more  economical 
than  the  feeding  of  corn  alone. 

3)  "The  feeding  of  protein  supplements,  such  as 
tankage  or  meat  meals  and  shorts,  and  tankage  or  meat 
meal,  in  connection  with  corn,  increased  the  efficiency  of 
the  ration  and  the  rate  of  the  gain. 

4)  "  With  a  grain  ration  of  corn,  shorts,  and  tankage, 
on  alfalfa  pasture,  the  profits  were  practically  the  same 
when  the  pigs  were  first  grown  on  a  limited  amount  of 
feed  during  the  summer  and  then  fattened  in  the  fall  as 
when  full  fed  from  the  beginning  until  ready  for  market. 

5)  "  Hogs  fed  on  pasture  made  cheaper  and  more  rapid 
gains  than  those  fed  in  dry  lots. 

6)  "  Hogs  can  be  profitably  grown  and  fed  when  corn 
is  supplemented  with  pasture  crops  and  protein  feed, 
such  as  alfalfa  hay,  soy  beans,  shorts,  and  meat  meal  and 
tankage." 

312.  Pig  Eaising.  (a)  Whi/.  —  In  many  cases  pupils 
may  be  able  to  show  better  results  in  pig  raising  than 
their  parents  have  done.  Some  boys  have  actually  suc- 
ceeded in  doing  this  and  their  parents  were  eager  to  be 
shown  how.  Sooner  or  later  every  boy  asks  himself  the 
question,  "  What  can  I  do  on  my  own  account  to  help  bear 
the  burdens  of  the  household  ?  "  A  host  of  our  best  men 
and  women  are  answering,  "  Why  not  raise  a  pig  ?  " 

No  doubt  there  are  lots  of  parents  who  do  not  realize 
that  one  of  the  ways  of  raising  good  boys  is  to  have  the 
boys  raise  good  pigs.  Keen  observers  say  that  when 
young  folks  care  for  and  nurture  a  dependent  creature 


PIG   RAISING  421 

some  of  the  best  qualities  in  the  young  folks  are  called 
forth  and  exercised.  This  means  that  the  rising  genera- 
tion is  not  so  likely  to  go  wrong  if  it  does  constructive 
work,  that  is,  if  it  is  encouraged  to  rear  a  plant,  a  colt,  a 
calf,  or  a  pig. 

Whenever  we  solve  one  problem  on  the  farm  we  are 
likely  to  have  solved  a  number  of  others  which  depend 
upon  it.  A  boy  raises  corn  and  desires  to  market  it. 
He  may  find  that  it  is  most  profitable  to  market  it  through 


Chester  White  Pig  in  Unattractive  Pen. 

swine.  The  question  of  reducing  the  cost  of  high-priced 
feed  recurs  again  and  again.  The  growing  of  forage 
crops  for  the  hogs  may  suggest  the  means  to  that  end. 
In  what  way  can  some  ready  cash  be  obtained  for  the  sole 
use  of  the  country  boy  ?  This  cash  in  large  amounts  has 
come  to  hundreds  of  American  boys  who  were  successful 
in  raising  pigs. 

(6)  How.  —  As  is  stated  a  little  later,  help  to  start  a 
pig  club,  then  follow  the  directions  as  given  in  Bulletin 
566.  We  need  give  here  a  few  suggestions  only.  It  may 
happen  that  the  mother  has  no  milk  for  the  baby  pigs  or 


422 


SHEEP  AND  SWINE 


not  enough  for  the  entire  litter.  The  boy  must  then  feed 
his  pigship  warmed  cow's  milk  from  a  bottle  with  a  nipple. 
There  is  danger  of  feeding  too  much  at  one  time.  Better 
feed  a  little  every  two  hours  and  gradually  increase  the 
quantity  of  milk  with  the  intervals  of  time  between 
meals. 

The  mother  pig,  or  brood  sow  as  she  is  often  called, 
must  also  be  well  cared  for  and  fed  properly  if  she  is  to 

supply  a  good  flow  of  rich  milk. 
jr  M  Mashes    of     bran,    shorts    and 

^^^        ^H|  ground  oats  have  given  satisfac- 

^^^H      ^^H  tion.     If  her  feed  is  too  rich,  as 

^^^H     ^^^^k  it  is  liable  to  be  when  made  up 

^^H    ^^fl^H  ^^  liberal  quantities  of  corn,  lin- 

^^^V   /•  ^BSk  ^^^^  meal,  and  skim  milk,  the 

^^H    y^^^H  baby  pigs  are  likely  to  be  affected 

^^^P    H^^^^l  with  digestive  disorders. 

^^H     ^^0V  You  will  notice  that  when  the 

^^B  little  ones  are  three  or  four  weeks 

^^H  old    they    will    begin    to   relish 

^^V  solid  food.     Now  is  the  time  to 

1^^  begin  weaning  them.     The  little 

ones  should  have  a  small  trough 

Bacon  and  Ham.  all    to    themselves,    since    they 

must  be  given  a  special  diet. 
It  is  necessary  to  place  obstructions  around  this  trough 
so  that  the  brood  sow  cannot  eat  the  food  intended  for  her 
children.  Start  with  a  little  sweet  milk,  three  times  daily. 
Be  sure  that  the  trough  is  kept  clean  and  that  no  left- 
over milk  is  allowed  to  sour  in  it. 

In  a  few  days  some  gruel  made  from  scalded  shorts  and 
bran  may  be  fed.  Gradually  a  little  cracked  corn  should 
be  added  to  the  bill  of  fare.  Care  must  be  taken  at  all 
times  in  changing  a  food  to  do  it  by  degrees.     Less  and 


HOME  EXERCISES  423 

less  of  the  mother's  milk  should  be  required  as  the  quan- 
tity of  extra  food  given  is  increased.  When  about  eight 
weeks  of  age  they  should  be  weaned  entirely,  the  mother 
being  placed  in  another  pen. 

If  the  young  pigs  are  to  make  their  best  growth  after 
weaning  they  should  not  be  exposed  to  the  hot  sun  or  in- 
closed within  a  dark,  filthy  pen.  During  the  summer  they 
need  a  cool  place  to  forage  and  a  wallow.  Add  some  grain 
to  their  forage.  During  fall  and  winter  they  are  to  be 
made  ready  for  the  market.  It  is  then  best  to  confine 
them  to  a  light,  clean,  well-ventilated  pen  and  feed  them 
according  to  the  suggestions  given  under  the  foregoing 
chapter  on  Feeding. 

Practical  Questions 

1.  How  do  sheep  differ  from  cattle  ?  2.  Is  sheep  raising  an  ancient 
occupation?  3.  What  are  the  two  chief  uses  of  sheep  ?  4.  Describe 
two  breeds  of  the  mutton  type.  5.  For  what  is  the  Merino  breed 
famous?  6.  Describe  how  sheep  are  cared  for  and  fed.  7.  What 
is  the  origin  of  our  swine?  8.  Why  are  there  more  lard  than  bacon 
hogs  in  America?      9.   State  a  few  characteristics  of  the  lard  type. 

10.  Give  the  chief  differences  between  the  common  breeds  of  hogs. 

11.  What  is  hog  cholera?  12.  Explain  how  the  hogs  are  cared  for 
and  fed  at  home.       13.    How  would  you  like  to  raise  a  pig  ? 

Home  Exercises 

1.  Start  a  pig  club.  Get  all  the  information  available  from  the 
state  or  national  bureaus.  As  in  the  case  of  other  farm  animals,  the 
pig  should  be  a  thoroughbred  animal.  Keep  a  careful  record  of  all 
expenditures  in  the  pig  work.  The  basis  of  award  suggested  by  the 
national  bureau  is  as  follows : 

1)  The  exhibit  of  the  hog  and  relation  to  its  purposes  judged 

by  score  card 25 

2)  Average  gain  per  day  or  month 25 

3)  Net  profit  and  cost  of  production •  25 

4)  Story  of  "  How  I  raised  my  Pig  " 25 

Total  Score 100 


424  SHEEP  AND  SWINE 

2.  Make  a  pig  and  sheep  census  of  your  school  district,  giving  the 
number  of  each  breed  of  animals  as  far  as  possible. 

3.  Write  a  story  on  "  How  My  Father  keeps  his  Pigs,"  or  use  sheep 
instead  of  pigs  in  such  a  story. 

Suggestions 

Draw  or  construct  models  of  hog  houses.  Send  to  your  local 
Experiment  Station  for  plans.  Correlate  this  work  with  that  of  the 
manual  arts.  Even  if  ordinary  paper  pasted  together  must  be  used,  it 
will  make  the  subject  more  real  and  lead  to  closer  observation  than 
mere  book  work.  Books  are  only  helps  in  the  study  of  agriculture. 
The  subject  must  be  made  real,  practical,  and  fascinating. 

2.  Select  samples  of  pure  cotton  and  wool,  and  make  a  list  of  all 
the  points  of  difference  you  can  find.  Determine  the  per  cent  of 
cotton  or  wool  in  some  common  fabric.  Get  information  on  this 
point  from  a  local  tailor. 

3.  A  score  card  for  pig  or  sheep  is  also  a  very  interesting  means  of 
arousing  interest  in  these  animals. 

References 

Manual  of  Farvi  Animals.     Harper. 
Ti/pes  and  Breeds  of  Farm  A  nimals.     Plumb. 
Sheep  Farming  in  America.     Wing. 
American  Merino.     Powers. 
Swine  Husbandry-     Colburn. 
Home  Pork  Making.     Fulton. 
Hand  Book  of  Nature  Study.     Comstock. 
Farmers'  Bulletins.     Washington.  D.  C. 
96.     Raising  Sheep  for  Mutton. 

133.     Profitable  Crops  for  Pigs. 

205.     Pig  Management. 

222.     Market.     Classes  and  Grades  of  Swine. 

329.     Hogging  off  Corn. 

438.     Hog  Houses. 

566.     Boys'  Pig  Clubs. 

Circular  No.  30.     Hog  Raising  in  the  South. 

Hog  Feeding.     Manhattan,  Kansas. 


CHAPTER   XXXII 

POULTRY 


The  cock,  with  lively  din 
Scatters  the  rear  of  darkness  thin 
And  to  the  stack  or  the  barn-door 
Stoutly  struts  his  dames  before. 


—  Milton. 


313.  Why  the  Raising  of  Poultry  is  Popular.  —  Poultry 
production  has  grown  to  be  an  important  industry  in  the 
United  States.     The  value  of  poultry  products  for  the  year 


A  Poultry  Project. 


1912  was  estimated  at  5^700,000,000,  which  is  more  than 
five  times  the  value  of  all  the  gold,  silver,  and  iron  ore 
mined  in  the  United  States  that  year.  More  than  a 
quarter  of  a  billion  chickens  and  other  forms  of  poultry 


425 


426 


POULTRY 


are  consumed  yearly  in  this  country.  Chickens  are 
raised  on  nearly  every  farm  the  world  over,  and  are 
found  even  in  the  back  yard  of  town  dwellers. 

There  are  many  reasons  for  the  popularity  of  poultry. 
Little  capital  is  needed  in  the  business.  On  the  farm, 
during  miich  of  the  year,  fowls  need  hardly  any  attention. 
They  consume  large  quantities  of  waste  matters,  and 
cost  little  for  upkeep.  The  eggs  and  flesh  are  whole- 
some and  universally  relished.  Hens  are  adapted  to  a 
restricted  or  to  a  free  range;  and  fair  success  and  profit 
come  to  keepers  of  only  slight  acquaintance  with  modern 

poultry  practices,  pro- 
vided they  do  not  begin 
on  too  large  a  scale. 

314.  The  First  Chicken. 
—  Chickens  are  domes- 
ticated birds,  distantly 
related  to  the  grouse  and 
other  wild  scratchers. 
So  far  as  known,  how- 
ever, there  are  possibly 
four  wild  birds  belong- 
ing to  the, chicken 
species.  These  are  the 
jungle  fowls  of  India 
and  Ceylon.  It  is  quite  possible  that  many  thousand 
years  ago  a  pair  of  these  birds  was  caught  and  tamed,  and 
that  from  it  by  selection  and  breeding  the  modern  hen 
was  produced.  Certainly  our  breeds  all  came  to  us  from 
Asia  and  southern  Europe. 

315.  Types  of  Chickens.  —  We  have  already  noticed  that 
there  are  heavy  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs,  as  distin- 
guished from  light  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs,  and 
that  the  heavy  and  light  types  are  associated  with  dif- 


White  Leghorn. 

This  hen.  Lady  Eglantine,  has  a  record 
of  314  eggs  in  365  days. 


THE  MEAT  BREEDS 


427 


ferent  purposes  on  the  farm.  Light  sheep,  for  example, 
produce  wool;  light  cattle,  milk;  and  light  hogs,  bacon. 
Among  poultry  we  have  also  the  two  great  types,  the 
light  breeds,  to  produce  eggs,  and  the  heavy  breeds,  to 
produce  meat.  In  addition  to  these  two  types,  as  might 
have  been  said  of  all  the 
great  divisions  of  live 
stock,  a  third  type  is 
often  recognized,  —  a 
middle,  or  "  general 
purpose,"  type. 

316.  The  Egg  Breeds 
belong  to  the  ''  Mediter- 
ranean Class." — The 
breeds  and  varieties  of 
this  class  are  small  and 
nervous.  They  are 
good  foragers,  but  poor 
sitters;  they  mature 
early  and  lay  white- 
shelled  eggs  at  an  early 
age.  Two  common 
breeds  are  the  Leg- 
horns and  the  Minorcas. 

317.  The  Leghorns,  which  are  white,  brown,  buff,  or  black 
in  color,  have  long  slender  bodies  and  white  ear  lobes. 
They  lead  all  others  in  laying  qualities. 

318.  The  Minorca  is  distinctly  larger  than  the  Leghorn 
and  has  a  larger  comb.  Black  is  its  most  popular  color. 
It  lays  fewer  but  larger  eggs  than  the  Leghorn. 

319.  The  Meat  Breeds  are  known  as  the  ''  Asiatic  Class."  — 
The  meat  breeds  are  heavy,  slow  in  movement,  poor 
layers,  but  good  sitters.  All  the  members  of  this  class 
have  feathers  on  the  shanks  and  feet.     The  three  breeds 


Minorca  Cock. 


428 


POULTRY 


of   this   class,   in  the  order   of   their  popularity,  are  the 
Brahma,  the   Lan^shan,  and  the  Cochin.     The   Brahmas 

are  the  heaviest,  and  the 
Langshans  are  the  tallest 
of  the  three.  As  large 
chickens  for  roasting,  no 
breed  excels  these  three. 
Poultry  fanciers,  how- 
ever, have  bred  them 
more  for  feathers  than 
for  utility  or  use. 

The  meat  breeds  were 
formerly  practically  all 
in  the  Asiatic  class, 
but  with  the  almost  en- 


Egg  Yields. 

Lady  Eglantine's  record  (314  eggs) 
compared  with  the  work  of  the  average 
hen  (135  eggs). 


tire   disappearance   of   this  type   of   chickens,  breeds  of 
the  American  class  have  taken  their  place. 

320.  The  General  Pur- 
pose Breeds,  sometimes 
known  as  the  ''American 
Class,"  combine  with 
more  or  less  success  the 
characteristics  of  the  egg 
and  of  the  meat  breeds. 
American  poultry  men, 
in  developing  this  class, 
desired  a  medium-sized 
fowl  of  great  vigor  and 
plain  type,  adapted  to  a 
wide  range  of  conditions, 
and  a  fowl  that  would 
produce  at  least  a  fair 
amount  of  both  eggs 
and  meat.      To  this  class  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  Hen. 


THE  GENERAL  PURPOSE  BREEDS 


429 


belong  many  of  our  most  common  breeds.  The  following 
are  a  few: 

(a)  The  Plymouth  RocTca  lead  all  others  in  the  United 
States  in  numbers  and  popularity.  They  are  quiet,  easily 
controlled,  good  and  reliable  layers,  and  furnish  meat  of 
excellent  quality,  making  good  broilers  at  from  eight  to 
twelve  weeks  of  age. 

(6)  The  Wyandottes  are  shorter  in  body  than  the  Rocks, 
and  run  about  a  pound  lighter  in  weight.  Their  flesh  is 
sweet   and   tender.      A 


Wyandotte  hen  should 
average  about  14  dozen 

bk 

eggs  a  year. 

(c)  The  Rhode  Island 

<5- 

K 

Reds  are  beginning  to 
take  high  rank  in  poul- 
try   production.      They 
weigh  a  trifle  less  than 

fe^ 

1 

the  Rocks,  and  are  con- 

^poDm^i 

H 

siderably     longer     and 
less   compact    than   the 

^3F 

„.. 

Wyandottes.      As    for- 
agers   they    equal    the 
Leghorns,    and   do   less 
mischief.         They     lay 

.-Jmm 

.'  •' '  -''^-i 

brown    eggs,    and    are 

Buff-Orpington. 

good  sitters  and  mothers. 

(d!)  The  Orpingtons  are  another  general  purpose  breed 
that  for  a  while  were  in  great  demand  but  are  now  some- 
what neglected  because  of  the  prejudice  in  America 
against  white-skinned  poultry.  They  have  round,  deep 
bodies,  broad  backs,  full  breasts,  short  legs,  white  beaks, 
legs,  and  toes,  and  weigh  nearly  a  pound  more  than 
the  Rocks. 


430 


POULTRY 


321.  Selecting  Breeds.  —  The  hen  which  the  general 
farmer  needs  is  one  that  lays  well,  especially  in  those  sea- 
sons of  the  year  when  eggs  are  high  in  price,  and  one  that 
will  dress  out  a  fair  quantity  of  meat  for  the  table.  There 
are  poor  layers  even  among  the  Leghorns,  and  it  is,  there- 
fore, wise  to  place  much  emphasis  on  those  strains  or 
families  that  are  strong  in  egg  production,  regardless  of 
breeds.     It  is  a  simple  matter  to  select  breeds  for  meat- 


White  Wyandottes. 


producing  qualities  from  mere  appearances,  but  the  ability 
to  produce  eggs  must  be  determined  by  actual  performance. 
322.  Housing  of  Poultry.  —  Chickens  have  a  temperature 
much  higher  than  man  has,  and  in  order  to  maintain  in 
them  what  to  us  would  be  a  fever  heat,  plenty  of  fresh  air 
should  enter  the  chicken  houses.  The  movement  for  the 
fresh-air  poultry  house  is  a  recent  one.  Enough  practical 
farmers,  however,  have  shown  its  advantages  over  a  warm 
house,  in  securing  better  egg  production,  fertility  of  eggs, 
and  vigor  of  chicks  raised  from  the  stock,  to  warrant  a 


SOME  DISEASES   OF  POULTRY  431 

recommendation    for    fresh-air   houses    in   preference    to 
warm,  closed-up  houses. 

A  common  fresh-air  house  has  something  like  50  per 
cent  of  the  south  front  open.  During  the  coldest  nights, 
however,  a  muslin  curtain  may  be  let  down  over  the  open- 
ing. Glass  windows  may  take  up  the  rest  of  the  sunny 
side.  The  plan  is  to  admit  plenty  of  sunlight  and  to  get 
good  ventilation  without  draughts. 

It  is  best  to  locate  the  poultry  houses  upon  soil  that  is 
well  drained.  A  cold  damp  location  is  as  unsuitable  as  is 
a  closed-up  home.  A  raised  site,  or,  lacking  this,  a  few 
inches  of  gravel  under  a  cement  floor,  will  generally  satisfy 
the  demands  for  dryness.  The  house  had  better  not  be 
placed  near  farm  buildings  that  are  apt  to  become  filthy, 
since  feeding  at  such  unsanitary  places  affects  the  flavor  of 
the  eggs  and  even  the  flesh. 

323.  Some  Diseases  of  Poultry.  —  Poultry  are  subjected  to 
many  diseases,  each  of  which  requires  special  treatment. 
We  can  mention  only  a  few  of  them. 

Gapes  is  caused  by  a  worm  left  in  the  mouth  in  swallow- 
ing the  ordinary  food,  or  by  angleworms  infested  with  this 
parasite.  The  logical  "prevention  "  is  new  or  untainted 
ground,  especially  in  a  wet  season.  Diseased  birds  should 
be  kept  by  themselves,  and  all  droppings  burned.  Spray- 
ing the  throat  with  spirits  of  camphor  is  a  good 
remedy. 

For  lice  rub  lice  powder  into  the  feathers  and  use  kero- 
sene emulsion,  to  which  a  little  creosote  has  been  added, 
or  use  a  little  butter,  lard,  or  some  bland  oil  rubbed  into 
the  down  and  feathers  of  the  head. 

Moup  is  a  foul-smelling  and  highly  contagious  form  of 
catarrhal  cold.  Clean  out  the  beaks,  and  spray  the  fowl 
with  peroxide  of  hydrogen.  Also  add  a  few  grains  of 
permanganate  of  potash  to  the  drinking  water. 


432 


POULTRY 


For  bleeding  from  the  comb,  wash  with  cold  water,  and 
coat  the  comb  with  vaseline  to  keep  away  the  rest  of 
the  flock.  Egg-eating  trouble  is  due  to  thin  shells,  in- 
sufficient or  improper  nests,  and  lack  of  nest  eggs  in  all 
nests.  Feed  cracked  oyster  shells  and  collect  eggs  fre- 
quently. 

324.  Raising  CMckens.  —  One  reason  why  chicken  raising 
as  a  regular  part  of  a  pupil's  school  work  is  so  intensely 


Rhode  Island  Reds. 


interesting  lies  in  the  fact  that  chickens  grow  rapidly  and 
mature  early.  They  respond  quickly  to  good  or  bad 
treatment.  A  boy  can  readily  see  the  results  of  his  care 
and  foresight,  on  the  one  hand,  or  of  his  indifference  and 
neglect,  on  the  other.  If  a  boy  is  successful  in  making 
money  out  of  his  flock,  he  can,  perhaps,  make  money  out 
of  horses,  cattle,  corn  or  wheat  when,  as  a  man,  he  as- 
sumes charge  of  a  farm. 

Starting  in  the  beginning,  the  first  point  of  importance 
is  to  have,  if  possible,  a  pure-bred  male  bird  at  the  head 


RAISING  CHICKENS  433 

of  the  flock.  It  would  be  better  if  the  hens  were  pure- 
bred also,  because  the  poultry  products  would  then  be 
more  uniform  and  hence  could  more  readily  be  marketed 
at  the  best  price.  What  breed  is  most  desirable  ?  That 
all  depends  on  the  purposes  for  which  the  chickens  are  to 


^m  /■  ''\''''iKli 

f 

^ 

■ 

1 

1 

^IL'^ 

1 

^ 

it  .li^l 

i'-'-^iiW^^ 

Brahma  Cock  and  Hen. 

be  raised.  It  would  be  a  good  plan  if  all  the  pupils  of  the 
class  would  select  the  same  breed. 

(a)  Natural  or  Hen  Incubation.  —  You  must  be  careful 
that  the  nest  is  a  quiet  one  and  properly  constructed. 
If  it  is  necessary  for  the  hen  to  jump  down  on  the  nest 
when  returning  to  it  during  the  incubation  period,  there 
is  danger  of  broken  eggs.  Occasionally  some  one  will 
make  a  nest  for  a  setting  hen  in  the  shape  of  a  derby  hat. 
The  eggs  in  such  a  nest  are  likely  to  lie  too  close  together 
at  the  center,  thus  making  it  difficult  for  the  hen  to  turn 
them  the  required  number  of  times. 

It  may  be  that   the  real   reason  why   the  mother   fre- 


434 


POULTRY 


quently  turns  her  eggs  is  not  for  the  benefit  of  the  grow- 
ing chicks,  as  it  certainly  happens  to  be,  but  for  making 

her  sitting  posture  more 
comfortable.  In  winter, 
however,  when  the  weather 
is  yet  very  cold,  a  fairly 
deep  nest  made  of  soft 
meadow  hay  lined  with 
chaff  is  to  be  preferred  to 
a  thin,  shallow  nest,  espe- 
cially if  made  of  such  poor 
nesting  material  as  ex- 
celsior. 

Select  from  9  to  15  good, 
fertile  eggs  of  uniform  size 
and  from  the  same  breed. 
The  greater  number  of 
eggs  may  be  set  in  late 
spring.  If  you  desire  the  pullets  (females  under  a  year) 
to  be  laying  eggs  early  in  the  season,  it  is  necessary 
to  start  hatching  early  in  the  spring. 


A  Setting  of  Eggs. 

Eggs  for  breeding  purposes  should  be 
carefully  selected. 


^|{#^ 


m0-/t^ 


-'^-^ 


Poultry  Feed. 

In  the  lower  part  of  the  picture  the  ingredients  are  separated.  From 
left  to  right  they  are :  grit,  buckwheat,  oats,  cracked  corn,  sunflower 
seed,  and  wheat. 


RAISING  CHICKENS 


435 


When  the  sitting  hen  leaves  the  nest  to  secure  food  and 
water,  it  is  best  to  have  these  necessities  at  a  convenient 
place  for  her.  Otherwise  she  may  tarry  too  long,  thus 
allowing  the  eggs  to  become  dangerously  cold.  Hard 
grains  and  grit  with  a  little  green  succulent  food  are  best 
for  her.     Fresh  food  and  water  should  be  supplied  daily. 


Feeding  the  Chickens. 


At  the  end  of  21  days  the  eggs  should  be  hatched. 
Have  a  coop  ready  —  a  coop  that  can  easily  be  kept  clean 
and  well  ventilated.  Place  the  coop  where  the  mother 
with  her  chicks  can  enjoy  a  good  range.  After  the  first 
day  give  them  a  mash  in  the  morning  ;  cracked  corn  later 
in  the  forenoon  ;  cracked  corn  and  whole  wheat  toward 
the  middle  of  the  afternoon  and  cracked  corn  in  the 
evening.  A  good  chick  grain  is  commonly  sold  every- 
where. The  little  chicks  can  have  no  other  purpose  in 
life  but  to  eat,  sleep,  exercise,  and  grow. 


436 


POULTRY 


When  people  raise  chickens  on  a  large  scale  they  find 
that  it  is  more  profitable  to  incubate  the  eggs  by  what  is 
known  as 

(6)  Artificial  or  Machine  Incubation.  —  Artificial  incu- 
bation requires  great  care  and  a  rather  extended  expe- 
rience to  be  successful.  Hundreds  of  little  details,  many 
of  which  in  the  natural  method  the  hen  herself  takes  care 

of,   must    be    mastered. 


Small  Chicken  House. 


Usually,  full  directions 
accompany  the  appara- 
tus; that  is,  the  in- 
cubators and  brooders, 
when  purchased  from  the 
dealers.  Just  a  few  sug- 
gestions need  be  offered 
here. 

Get  ready  a  little  be- 
forehand by  trying  out 
the  apparatus  for  several 
days  to  be  sure  you  can 
operate  it  according  to  directions.  Perhaps  a  well- 
ventilated  cellar  is  as  good  a  place  as  any  for  the  hatching. 
Select  the  best  eggs  obtainable.  Keep  the  temperature  as 
near  102°  F.  as  possible.  Turn  the  eggs  twice  daily  from 
the  third  to  the  eighteenth  day.  Cool  the  eggs  each  day 
for  about  fifteen  minutes,  or  when  the  weather  is  warm 
a  little  longer.  Testing  is  done  on  the  seventh  and  the 
fourteenth  days. 

A  simple  device  for  "candling"  or  testing  eggs  can  be 
made  by  folding,  in  the  form  of  a  tube  an  inch  or  two  in 
diameter  and  about  two  feet  long,  a  piece  of  heavy  paper. 
Place  the  egg  at  one  end  and  look  through  the  tube 
toward  a  strong  light.  A  large  dark  area  indicates  a  live 
embryo.     You  understand  why  it  is  useless  to  keep  on 


BAI8IN0  CHICKENS 


437 


incubating  eggs  without  live  embryos.  The  two  chief 
reasons  for  failures  with  incubators  are  :  poor  judgment 
and  irregular  attention. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  when  the  chicks  appear 
they  come  as  orphans  and  must  be  mothered.  The  most 
successful  chicken  men  have  learned  their  best  lessons 
directly  from  the  mother  hen.  The  mother  keeps  the 
newly  hatched  chicks  quiet  and  warm  for  the  first  day  or 
two ;     she    gives    them 


plenty  of  fresh  air  ;  and 
allows  their  bodies  to 
dry  off  without  the 
danger  of  a  chill.  So 
must  we,  their  foster 
mothers. 

(c)  Brooders.  —  One 
of  the  first  wants  of 
chicks  is  a  warm  mother, 
and  to  supply  this  want 
to  the  orphans  many 
kinds  of  brooders  have 
been  manufactured. 
The  fireless  brooder  is 
really  a  modification  of 
the  basket  or  box,  covered  with  a  piece  of  flannel  or  old 
shawl,  which  is  usually  placed  behind  the  kitchen  stove. 
Our  grandmothers  have  used  this  method  for  generations. 
The  heat,  when  the  brooder  is  taken  outdoors,  must  come 
from  the  bodies  of  the  chicks  themselves.  It  is  held  that 
this  brooder  in  midwinter  then  requires  too  much  of  the 
chick's  energy  to  supply  its  own  needed  heat,  leaving 
little  for  growth  and  development. 

In  another  type  of  brooder,  heat  and  ventilation  are 
supplied  artificially,  commonly  by  a  lamp.     For  the  first 


Putting  Chicks  in  the  Brooder. 


438  POULTRY 

week  in  such  brooders  the  temperature  should  not  be 
allowed  to  go  below  95°  F.  It  will  not  hurt  a  young 
chick  to  run  out  in  the  cold,  even  in  the  snow,  if  it  has  a 
warm  place  to  run  back  to  and  can  find  this  place.  Chicks 
should  be  encouraged  early  in  life  to  take  outdoor  exer- 
cise and  not  spend  all  their  time  loafing  in  the  warm 
brooder. 

A  cheap  artificially  heated  brooder  for  indoors  can  be 
made  from  an  ordinary  flat  store  box.     Remove  the  boards 


A  Type  of  Colony  Hen-house. 

on  the  broadest  side  and  nail  across  this  a  narrow  board 
about  18  inches  from  one  end.  The  open  part  of  the  box 
is  the  top.  Cover  one  end  of  the  top  with  burlap  which  is 
allowed  to  sag  in  the  middle  to  within  four  inches  of  the 
bottom.  On  the  burlap  a  hot  water  bottle  filled  twice  each 
day  and  covered  with  newspapers  is  placed.  The  news- 
papers keep  in  the  heat  above.  To  the  cross  piece  is  hung 
a  curtain  extending  nearly  to  the  floor.  Under  the  warm 
water  bottle  is  the  nursery.  The  other  part  of  the  box  is 
used  as  a  runway.     This  part  should  be  covered  with  half- 


RAISING  CHICKENS  439 

inch  mesh  wire  to  keep  out  rats  and  cats.  If  this  brooder 
is  kept  dry  it  will  serve  outdoors  also.^ 

(c?)  Finishing.  If  the  chicks  are  intended  to  be  layers, 
the  hatching  should  be  done  in  early  spring.  When 
twelve  weeks  old  they  should  be  placed  in  small  colony 
houses  in  a  field  and  given  a  chance  to  run  in  the  grass. 
They  should  now  receive  much  the  same  care  as  to  feeding 
as  those  raised  by  the  hen.  Broilers  grown  in  the  winter 
are  kept  in  the  brooder  house  until  they  weigh  from  one 
to  two  pounds. 

Spring  broilers  if  in  free  range  are  confined  to  a  small 
yard  or  pen  and  are  fed  on  a  fattening  ration  including 
corn  and  meat.  Fryers  are  confined  two  or  three  weeks 
before  marketing.  They  should  gain  a  half  pound  each 
week.  Roasters  are  usually  carried  a  little  farther  in  a 
free  range  before  fattening  in  the  yard.  The  fattening 
process  can  be  finished  more  quickly  by  placing  the  roasters 
for  a  week  in  a  dark  enclosure. 

(«)  Marketing.  Chickensmaybe  started  properly  ;  they 
may  be  reared  with  care  and  economy  ;  and  yet  when  their 
products  are  placed  on  the  competitive  market,  scant  re- 
turn can  be  shown  for  the  labor  and  money  invested. 
While  the  raising  of  chickens  may  provide  a  high  degree 
of  intellectual  pleasure,  yet  the  pleasure  is  usually  not 
complete  unless  it  is  rounded  out  with  a  handsome  profit. 
If  poultry  is  shif)ped  alive,  little  need  be  done  except  sort- 
ing and  grading.  But  when  the  poultry  is  to  be  dressed 
it  must  be  fasted,  killed,  scalded,  picked,  cooled,  graded, 
and  packed. 

On  each  point  much  valuable  experience  need  be  ac- 
quired.    Often  a  seller  is  able  to  get  several  cents  more  a 


>It  is  much  better  for  pupils  to  make  such  things  than  to  buy  them.  An 
apparatus  of  this  kind  often  serves  the  same  purpose  as  the  more  expensive 
articles  supplied  by  dealers. 


440 


POULTRY 


pound  for  his  poultry  products  because  he  knows  how  to 
deliver  these  products  in  a  way  that  is  attractive  to  the 
best  buyers.  When  you  go  to  market  watch  with  the 
utmost  care  how  those  poultrymen  who  get  the  fancy 
prices,  market  their  goods.  Not  only  imitate  the  best 
methods,  but  make  the  best  better. 

There  is  a  great  deal  to  be  learned,  too,  in  getting  eggs 
read}'  for  the  market  so  as  to  satisfy  the  most  exacting 


Modern  Poultry  House  and  Yard. 


tastes  of  the  best  consumers.  The  eggs  should  be  sorted 
for  color  and  size,  cleaned  and  shipped  in  suitable  cases. 
If  a  producer  desires  to  preserve  his  eggs  in  water  glass, 
which  is  done  by  using  one  part  of  the  water  glass  to  ten 
of  water,  that  is  his  private  affair;  but  if  he  places  these 
preserved  eggs  on  the  market  as  fresh  eggs  then  the  affair 
becomes  a  matter  of  public  concern.  The  producer  will 
soon  learn  that  honesty  is  the  best  policy  in  the  egg 
market  as  well  as  in  any  other.  Clean  the  fresh  eggs 
thoroughly  with  warm  water.  If  they  are  so  stained  as 
to  make  cleaning  impossible,  keep  them  for  home  use. 


RAISING   CHICKENS 


441 


In  the  trade,  eggs  are  sorted  as  to  color  into  three  classes : 
white,  gray,  and  brown.  Even  though  the  market  has  no 
special  preference,  a  carton  of  mixed  eggs  does  not  look 
well.  The  size  of  the  cartons  depends  on  the  quantity  of 
eggs  the  buyer  needs. 

There  is  an  increasing  number  of  fresh  eggs  now  being 
sold  by  producers  directly  to  distant  consumers  through 
the  medium  of  the  parcel  post.  Pasteboard  boxes  hold- 
ing from  one  to  ten  dozen  eggs  each  are  manufactured  es- 


HiGH  School  Boys  Preparing  for  the  Poultry  Show. 

pecially  for  this  trade.  The  boxes  are  made  of  fiber  board 
with  corrugated  lining  and  fillers  or  partitions  of  the  same 
material.  Each  Qgg  is  securely  wrapped  in  corrugated 
pasteboard.  Farmers  should  avail  themselves  more  and 
more  of  such  opportunities  afforded  by  the  parcel  post,  and 
thus  keep  in  their  own  pockets  the  profits  that  would  go 
to  middlemen. 

If  a  storekeeper  can  sell  fifteen  dozen  eggs  a  week,  car- 
tons of  that  size  should  be  furnished  him.  To  others 
using  larger  quantities  the  regulation  case  having  two 
compartments  each  holding  fifteen  dozen  eggs  is  most 
suitable. 


442 


POULTRY 


It  is  a  good  thing  to  advertise  a  little  on  the  label  of 
the  carton.  Select  a  suitable  name  for  the  farm,  and  ad- 
vertise this  name  not  only  on 
the  parcel  labels,  but  on  the 
billheads  and  market  wagon. 
Judicious  advertising  pays. 

To  sum  up,  then,  pupils  who 
wish  to  raise  chickens  for  profit 
as  a  school  project  should  see 
that  proper  care  is  taken  in  the 
selection    of    the    eggs,   which 
should  come  from  the  best  avail- 
able stock;    that  there  is  little 
loss  in  hatching;  that  the  chicks  are  profitably  brooded; 
and  that  their  products,  whether  meat  or  eggs,  are  attrac- 
tively presented  to  prospective  buyers. 


Turkey. 


Practical  Questions 

1.  How  does  our  poultry  industry  compare  with  some  of  our  other 
industries?  2.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  common  hen?  3.  Describe 
the  Leghorn  and  the  Minorca  breeds.  4.  What  is  meant  by  the  term, 
" general  purpose  fowls?"  5.  Name  three  general  purpose  breeds. 
6.  Describe  a  fresh-air  chicken  house.  7.  Describe  the  Rocks  and 
the  Wyandottes.        8.   AVhat  are  good  succulent  feeds  for  chickens? 

9.  In  what  way  may  eggs  be  spoiled  before  reaching  the  consumer? 

10.  What  is  roup?      11.   How  should  eggs  be  marketed ?      12.   Give 
a  ration  for  young  chicks.      13.   Will  you  not  raise  a  pen  of  chickens  ? 


Home  Exercises 

1.  Report  the  number  of  different  kinds  of  poultry  at  home,  and 
your  father's  method  of  taking  care  of  them. 

2.  Report  the  per  cent  of  hens  laying  every  day  for  one  week. 
How  do  you  determine  which  hens  are  not  laying? 

3.  Start  a  Poultry  Project.  This  project  is  interesting  and  highly 
instructive.  The  following  is  a  copy  of  the  poultry  blank  furnished 
by  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Washington,  D.C. 


HOME  EXERCISES 


448" 


Rearing  Report  from  Weaning  Time  until  January  First 

Name Age 

Post  Office -      County State 

Name  of  Poultry  Club Year 


Number 

OK 

ClIIOKB 

AT 

Wean- 

KiNi> or 
Chicks 

Chickens  Sold 
FOR  Market 

Total 

Amount 

Rec'd 

PCLI.ETS 

Raised 

TO 

Janu- 
ary 1 

COCK- 
EKKLS 

Raised 

TO 

Janu- 
ary 1 

Number 

OF 

Chicks 
Died 

Number 

OK 

Chicks 
Hemain- 

INO 

Total 
Weight 
Janu- 
ary 1 

Number 

Pounds 

ing 

TiMB 

Pounds 



Remarks.  —  Chickens    sold    for    breeders :     Cockerels  —  Number 

,  value ;  pullets  — 

Number ,  value 

Highest  price  received  for  a  single  bird  :  $ ;  cockerel 

or  pullet 

Exhibited  at Fair.     Number  of  birds 

exhibited ;  total  prize  money  received,  $ 

Number  of  special  premiums ;  nature  of  same 

Chickens  used  at  home  should  be  credited  at  market  prices. 

Labor  at  10  cents  per  hour  :  Number  of  hours ; 

cost 


Number  op  Pounds 
Used 

Cost  of  Feed 

.    Kind  of  Feed 

Dollars 

Cents 

444  POULTRY 

Two  copies  of  this  report  must  be  filled  out  to  January  1 ;  one  to  be 
given  to  the  teacher  and  the  other  to  be  retained  by  the  club  member. 

Suggestions 

1.  Send  to  your  Agricultural  College  for  modern  poultry  house 
plans.  Small  models  can  readily  be  made  in  school.  After  the 
models  have  been  completed,  mount  them  on  the  floor  or  on  a  broad 
table.  Sawdust  stained  with  a  green  dye  may  be  placed  around 
them  to  resemble  grass.  Invite  the  patrons  of  the  school  to  see  the 
exhibit.  Compare  these  models  with  the  poultry  houses  of  the  com- 
munity. If  there  is  a  planing  mill  or  box  factory  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, the  scraps  of  material  needed  for  the  sides  and  supports  can  be 
cheaply  and  easily  obtained.  The  entire  cost  of  an  excellent  poultry- 
house  model  need  not  exceed  ten  cents. 

2.  Open  up  a  fresh  uncooked  egg  in  a  shallow  cup  or  saucer.  Note 
the  germ,  —  a  small  red  spot  on  the  yolk.  This  is  the  vital  spot  where 
growth  of  the  chick  begins  in  a  fertile  egg.  Notice  thechalaza  in  the 
albumen  or  white  of  the  egg.  This  is  made  up  of  denser  layers  of 
albumen,  and  is  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  unhatched  chick  by 
keeping  it  away  from  the  shell.  Take  a  little  of  the  albumen  and  of 
the  yolk,  and  shake  them  separately  in  a  glass  containing  a  little 
water.     Note  which  appears  to  be  the  more  oily. 

Examine  the  shell.  Note  the  two  membranes.  Both  membranes 
can  be  seen  at  the  thicker  end  of  the  shell,  where  there  is  an  air  space. 
Hold  a  bit  of  the  shell  and  membrane  up  to  the  light  separately,  to 
see  if  either  is  porous.  If  a  microscope  were  available,  the  pupils 
would  be  better  able  to  see  the  pores  if  any  are  present.  Gases  must 
enter  and  leave  the  egg  during  the  hatching  period.  Can  gases  pass 
through  a  membrane  that  is  not  porous? 

3.  Remove  the  shell  from  a  hard-boiled  egg.  Study  the  membranes 
of  the  shell,  and  the  layers  of  albumen.  Notice  the  whitish  layers  in 
the  yolk.  Fat  is  lighter  in  weight  than  albumen,  hence  the  yolk 
floats  at  its  surface,  as  is  seen  when  the  shell  is  removed.  For  this 
reason  eggs  must  be  turned  occasionally  for  a  few  days  during  the 
early  period  of  hatching.  Otherwise,  the  germ  that  is  found  on  the 
top  of  the  yolk  would  dry  fast  to  the  shell  and  die.  A  sitting  hen, 
of  course,  turns  the  eggs  herself. 

4.  Each  pupil  should  keep  a  record  of  the  home  egg  production.  The 
number  of  hens  should  be  counted,  and  a  record  kept  of  the  number 
of  eggs  produced  by  them.     Determine  the  per  cent  of  laying  hens. 


REFERENCES  446 

References 

Productive  Poultry  Husbandry.     Lewis. 

Principles  and  Practice  of  Poultry  Culture.     Robinson. 

American  Standard  of  Perfection.     Drevenstedt. 

Making  Poultry  Pay.     Powell. 

Farmers'  Bulletins.     Washington,  D.C. 

51.    Standard  Varieties  of  Chickens.  » 

128.   Eggs  and  Their  Use. 

200.   Turkeys. 

236.   Incubation  and  Incubators. 

287.   Poultry  Management. 

445.   Market  Eggs  through  the  Creamery. 

452.    Capons  and  Caponizing. 

528.    Hints  to  Poultry  Raisers. 

530.    Important  Poultry  Diseases. 

562.    The  Organization  of  Boys'  and  Girls'  Poultry  Clubs. 

574.    Poultry  House  Construction. 

594.    Shipping  Eggs  by  Parcel  Post. 

624.   Natural  and  Artificial  Brooding  of  Chickens. 

682.   A  Simple  Trap  Nest  for  Poultry. 


PART   V 
FARM   ECONOMICS 

CHAPTER   XXXIII 

FAKM  FINANCE 


"  If  thou  lend  money  to  any  of  my  people  that  is  poor  by  thee, 
thou  shalt  not  be  to  him,  as  an  usurer,  neither  shalt  thou  lay  upon 
him  usury."  —  Exodus  xxH.  25. 


325.  The  Call  of  Better  Farm  Management.  —  We  have  now 
studied  a  few  facts  about  rural  life ;  and  a  few  points  on 
the  soil,  —  its  origin,  composition,  and  treatment.  We 
have  noted  certain  peculiarities  of  farm  plants,  —  how 
they  can  be  best  selected  and  grown  with  profit ;  and  we 
have  also  become  acquainted  with  some  of  the  well-recog- 
nized principles  of  feeding  farm  stock,  also  how  cattle^ 
horses,  sheep,  and  poultry  are  grouped  into  types  and 
breeds,  each  presenting  its  special  point  of  interest.  But 
a  knowledge  of  all  these  things  is  valuable  only  so  far  as 
it  can  be  made  to  serve  useful  purposes.  Knowledge  is 
power  only  when  put  into  use.  We  must  not  conclude  our 
study  of  the  great  subject  of  agriculture  without  a  brief 
discussion  of  farm  management,  —  the  kind  of  management 
which  spells  farm,  community,  and  national  efficiency. 

Agriculture  is  not  only  a  science  and  an  art,  but  a  plain 
business  proposition  as  well.  And  whenever  we  talk  of  busi- 
ness we  talk  of  money  and  we  deal  with  principles  of  finance. 

In  every  chapter  of  this  book  "  Home  Exercises  "  have 

446 


WHAT  CAPITAL  IS  447 

been  outlined.  We  desired  to  give  you,  as  you  worked  on 
these  exercises,  the  skill  to  earn  money  for  yourself.  Out- 
side of  school,  learning  and  earning  go  together.  The  more 
we  learn  of  what  is  really  useful  in  our  work  the  more 
we  shall  probably  earn.  The  amount,  however,  depends  in 
large  measure  on  whether  we  are  good  managers  or  not ; 
in  other  words,  on  whether  we  have  good  judgment  and 
show  business  ability  as  well. 

American  farmers  have  often  been  criticized  for  their 
lack  of  good  business  sense.  Many  of  them  do  not  keep 
records  of  receipts  and  expenditures  of  important  farm 
operations.  Many  are  at  times  extremely  radical,  then  at 
«ther  times  extremely  conservative,  on  scientific  and  finan- 
cial questions.  The  only  thing  that  has  saved  them  against 
the  competition  of  the  world  has  been  their  boundless  re- 
sources and  their  exceptional  opportunities.  Up  to  within 
a  few  years  it  was  possible  to  waste  our  soil,  destroy  our 
forests,  and  neglect  our  capacity  for  developing  and  extend- 
ing credit  in  rural  sections,  without  feeling  the  effects  of 
mismanagement  severely  either  in  the  foreign  or  in  the 
domestic  trade.     But  these  days  are  gone. 

Farming  is  now  coming  to  be  more  and  more  a  business 
enterprise  the  world  over ;  and  it  is  our  plain,  patriotic 
duty  as  Americans  to  recognize  the  necessity  of  skillful 
management  in  directing  this  business,  just  as  we  have  for 
years  recognized  it  in  the  organization  and  direction  of 
our  industrial  affairs. 

At  bottom  our  agricultural  problem  is  largely  an  eco- 
nomic one.  It  concerns  capital  and  all  the  agencies,  both 
individual  and  collective,  which  can  attract  and  manage 
capital  under  conditions  that  will  promote  and  not  pre- 
vent rural  development.     We  will  first  inquire  as  to 

326.  What  is  Capital?  —  Capital,  according  to  Adam 
Smith,  is  all  resources  from  which  one  expects  revenues. 


448 


FARM  FINANCE 


It  is  wealth  employed  in  production.  Let  us  use  a  common 
illustration  to  show  how  capital  differs  from  mere  wealth 
with  which  it  is  often  confused.  You  may  own  a  fancy- 
chicken,  ornamented  with  feathers  of  an  unusual  design. 
You  did  not  breed  this  chicken  in  order  to  make  money 
out  of  it,  but  merely  for  the  pleasure  its  presence  gave 
you.  This  chicken  is  a  form  of  wealth.  If,  however,  you 
are  raising  this  fancy  stock  for  profit,  it  will  then  be  capi- 
tal, since  it  is  used  for  production  of  more  wealth.     The 


Successful  Farming  Requires  Capital 


essential  feature  of  capital  then,  whether  in  the  form  of 
money,  tools,  machinery,  stock,  or  land,  is  the  use  to  which 
it  is  put,  rather  than  the  form  which  it  takes. 

Farm  capital  is  sometimes  regarded  either  as  fixed  or 
circulating.  By  the  term  fixed  capital  is  meant  such  forms 
as  land,  bridges,  and  roads,  which  may  be  used  many 
times  in  production.  Circulating  capital  consists  of  such 
articles  as  fuel,  fertilizer,  and  feed,  which  lose  their  value 
or  are  consumed  when  used. 


THE  NEED  OF  CAPITAL 


449 


327.  Need  of  Capital.  —  It  was  stated  in  Chapter  IV 
that  the  per  cent  of  tenant  farmers  in  the  United 
States  is  increasing.  The  following  census  table  shows 
this: 


1880 

1890 

1900 

1910 

Per  cent  of  Tenants  to  Landlords 

25.6 

28.4 

35.3 

37 

This  growth  in  tenancy  is  more  of  a  symptom  than  a 
cause  of  any  fundamental  disturbance  in  our  country  life. 
It  is  a  symptom  that  more  capital  is  needed  in  successful 
farming  to-day  than  was  required  a  generation  ago;  that 
small  farms  poorly  equipped  Avith  machinery  and  stock 
are  placed  at  a  disadvantage  when  competing  with  larger 
farms  under  modern  management.  Even  small  farms  of 
less  than  100  acres  equipped  in  modern  fashion  may  now 
be  laboring  under  a  handicap.  Large  farms  of  several 
hundred  acres  fitted  out  with  up-to-date  appliances  can 
often  produce  yields  most  economically.  All  this  means 
large  capital. 

In  early  days  little  capital  was  needed  for  farm  purposes. 
If  farmers  did  lay  aside  a  little  money  each  year,  they 
were  more  likely  to  buy  some  municipal  bond  or  well- 
advertised  stock  calculated  to  improve  a  distant  city  or 
industrial  center  than  to  invest  these  earnings  in  farm 
improvements.  A  few  simple  tools,  many  of  which 
were  made  at  home  or  at  the  local  blacksmith  shop, 
were  all  that  they  knew  how  to  use.  Land  was  either 
free  or  very  cheap.  Not  only  land,  but  expensive  stock, 
tools,  and  machinery,  are  necessities  in  present  day  agri- 
culture. 

Our  industrial  development  has  outrun  our  agricultural 
development.     We  have  watched  the   building  of  great 


450  FARM  FINANCE 

trunk  lines  and  the  growth  of  industrial  centers  with 
satisfaction.  Nor  was  it  regarded  of  vital  importance, 
to  equalize  the  burdens  of  taxation  on  the  property  of 
the  manufacturers  and  that  of  the  farmers.  The  report 
of  the  commission  which  recently  investigated  the  tax  ques- 
tion in  California,  a  typical  state,  reports  that :  "  Manu- 
facturers pay  ^  of  one  per  cent  on  their  capital  in  taxes; 


Transportation. 

Here  may  be  seen  a  railroad  and  a  canal  side  by  side,  two  common 
types  of  transportation. 

farmers  pay  1.14  per  cent,  or  two  and  one  third  times  as 
much.  Manufacturers  pay  ^  of  one  per  cent  of  their  gross 
income  in  taxes;  farmers  pay  nearly  7  per  cent,  or  twenty 
times  as  much.  Manufacturers  pay  2  per  cent  of  their 
net  income,  while  farmers  pay  10  per  cent,  or  five  times 
as  much." 

It   would    doubtless  be  an  error  to  consider  the  lack 
of  capital  in  farming  as  the  only  cause  of  the  alarming 


THE  NEED  OF  CAPITAL  451 

tendency  of  our  foreign  trade,  but  tliat  it  is  a  vital  factor 
cannot  be  denied. 

Our  food  animals  and  foodstuffs  exported  during  the 
fiscal  year  of  1912  amounted  to  $99,900,000  or  4.6  per 
cent  of  our  total  exports,  while  during  the  fiscal  year  1900 
they  amounted  to  $227,300,000  or  16.59  per  cent  of  the 
total  exports.  Our  similar  imports  for  the  year  1912 
were  $180,120,000,  but  for  the  year  1900  were  only 
$68,700,000. 

During  this  period  our  foreign  trade  was  not  affected 
by  war,  and  when  the  present  war  is  over  the  same 
tendency,  unless  arrested,  will  continue. 

In  plain  language  we  are  exporting  less  and  less,  and 
importing  more  and  more,  each  succeeding  year.  What 
will  the  final  effect  of  this  be  on  splendid  America  ? 

Bankers,  statesmen,  —  all  patriotic  citizens,  are  begin- 
ning to  inquire  why  this  is  so  and  where  it  will  lead  to. 
It  was  once  thought  that  a  lack  of  scientific  farming  alone 
was  responsible.  Scientific  farming  is  without  doubt  an 
important  factor,  but  just  as  our  industries,  even  with 
American  ingenuity  and  skill,  would  have  labored  under 
a  tremendous  handicap  without  available  capital,  just  so 
our  agriculture  has  been  for  years,  and  is  especially  now, 
distressed  because  of  a  lack  of  financial  accommodations 
suited  to  its  peculiarities.  These  peculiarities  call  for 
low  rates,  long  terms,  and  that  type  of  security  which  is 
based  in  large  measure  on  character,  thrift,  and  intelligent 
industry. 

Our  national  and  state  policies  have  been  built  up  with 
the  idea  of  encouraging  manufacturing  and  of  neglecting, 
or  what  is  worse,  of  placing  a  handicap  on  the  develop- 
ment of  farming. 

That  farm  capital  is  of  vital  importance  to  successful 
agriculture    can    be   seen    in  part  from  an  investigation 


452 


FARM  FINANCE 


made  recently  by  Professor  Warren  of  615  farms  operated 
by  owners,  of  Tompkins  County,  New  York.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  results  of  this  investigation: 

Relations  of  Capital  to  Profits 


Capital 

NUMBKB  OF  FaBMS 

AVKRAOB  InCOMB  OF  LaBOB 

«2,000orle8S 

36 

$192 

2,000-^4,000 

200 

240 

4,000-6,000 

183 

390 

6,000-8,000 

94 

530 

8,000-10,000 

45 

639 

10,000-15,000 

44 

870 

over  15,000 

13 

1164 

It  will  at  once  be  noticed  from  the  foregoing  table  that 
farmers  with  $4000  capital  were  making  less  than  the 
hired  man,  and  that  farmers  with  the  larger  capital  were 
getting  the  larger  labor  income.  Hence  it  is  more  profit- 
able, ordinarily,  unless  a  farmer  can  get  control  of  about 
$5000  worth  of  capital,  to  be  a  hired  man,  a  share  renter, 
a  cash  renter,  or  part  owner,  than  to  be  a  full  owner.^ 

For  this  reason  young  farmers,  especially,  enter  the 
tenant  class,  and,  unless  the}"^  can  control  later  on  a 
reasonable  amount  of  capital,  find  it  most  profitable  to 
remain  indefinitely  in  this  class. 

But  it  is  necessary,  whether  owners  or  tenants,  to  get 
the   control   of  some  capital — the  more,  within  certain 


1  A  share  renter  is  one  in  which  the  landlord  may  furnish  the  tenant  the 
land  only;  or  the  land  and  some  of  the  live  stock,  feed  and  fertilizer;  or 
everything  except  human  labor.  The  tenant  and  the  landlord  divide  up  or 
"  share  "  the  produce  of  the  laud,  each  taking  the  part  agreed  on,  often  one 
half. 

The  cash  renter  usually  furnishes  everything  except  the  fixed  capital  — 
land  and  buildings,  and  agrees  to  pay  a  stipulated  sum  to  the  landlord  for  the 
use  of  the  fixed  capital. 


THE  NEED  OF  CAPITAL  463 

limits,  the  better,  and  this  question  of  the  need  of  capital 
takes  us  at  once  into  one  of  the  most  pressing  problems 
of  American  farm  life, — how  to  secure,  under  the 
best  terms,  the  capital  requirements  for  the  ordinary 
farmer. 

How  May  Capital  he  Secured?  — There  are  but  two  ways 
open  to  the  farmer  to  secure  the  capital  he  needs,  he  may 
spend  less  than  he  earns  or  he  may  borrow  what  he  re- 
quires from  others.^ 

If  a  person  is  obliged  to  wait  on  his  own  efforts  for  the 
money  he  must  have  in  business,  he  will  be  obliged  very 
often  to  skimp  along  through  life  with  scant  productive 
power.  If,  however,  he  can  borrow  some  money,  not  to 
pay  living  expenses,  but  to  add  to  his  power  as  a  pro- 
ducer, he  may  be  able  soon  to  pay  back  the  amount  loaned 
from  the  increased  earnings. 

Some  farmers  think  that  it  is  not  respectable  to  borrow 
money  and  thus  carry  a  debt.  It  gives  them  greater  joy 
to  have  a  little  bag  of  gold  hid  in  a  safe  place  in  the  floor, 
— ■  having  the  sweet  consciousness  that  they  may  be  able 
to  add  a  little  to  this  sum  in  miserly  fashion  from  year  to 
year,  —  than  to  plan  on  borrowed  capital  a  wider,  a  richer, 
and  a  more  productive  farm  life.  Wise  borrowing  is  re- 
spectable, for  the  reason  that  it  is  the  only  means  of  in- 
creasing the  earning  power  open  to  many  farmers. 

Where  to  secure  the  Capital.  —  There  are  four  sources  of 
supply  open  to  the  average  farmer,  — private  individuals^ 
stores^  hanks,  and  cooperative  associations.^ 

When  a  farmer  comes  to  one  of  these  sources  for  funds 
the  first  question  asked  him  is.  What  credit  or  security 

1  Neither  of  these  methods,  of  course,  includes  what  may  be  obtained  by 
the  laws  of  inheritance. 

2  Borrowing  from  private  individuals  is  the  simplest  method,  and  it 
would  be  the  best  if  the  borrower  and  the  lender  could  readily  find  each 
other. 


464  FARM  FINANCE 

does  he  possess,  that  is,  what  confidence  can  the  lender 
place  in  him  for  the  materials  or  money  to  be  advanced.* 

Why  is  it  that  when  a  farmer  asks  for  assistance  from 
one  of  the  sources  of  supply,  his  credit  is  not  regarded  as 
good  as  that  of  the  average  manufacturer  ?  A  banker  of 
Stark  County,  North  Dakota,  as  quoted  in  a  recent  issue 
of  The  American  Review  of  Reviews,  says  that  often  the 
farmers  are  themselves  to  blame. 

"  It  is  our  belief,"  the  banker  says,  "  that  the  scarcity  of 
money  and  the  high  interest  rates  are  largely  due  to  poor 
farming.  The  people  having  money  to  loan  know  well 
that  our  farmers  here  have  an  uncertain  income,  according 
to  their  present  methods  of  farming,  and  would  expect  a 
much  higher  rate  commensurate  with  the  risk  taken  than 
when  they  can  find  people  where  money  can  be  placed 
more  safely.  As  conditions  are  now,  some  people  have  not 
paid  all  their  interest  for  at  least  three  or  sometimes  for 
four  years.  ...  As  soon  as  farmers  can  show  that  they  are 
safe  and  can  take  care  of  their  obligations  promptly,  they 
can  command  the  lowest  interest  rates  that  may  exist. 
We  believe  it  is  more  necessary  to  work  on  better  farming 
methods,  encouraging  them,  than  on  better  interest  ra'tes ; 
for  the  lower  interest  rates  are  the  natural  consequence  to 
better  farming. ''^ 

We  will  now  take  up  the  main  loaning  facilities  open  to 
farmers  more  in  detail. 

328.  The  Country  Store.  —  The  country  store  has  always 
exerted  a  marked  influence  on  the  business  and  social 
activities  of  farm  life.     This  influence,  however,  has  often 


>  Credit  has  come  to  be  the  chief  iustruinent  of  business.  Most  of  the 
world's  work  is  being  carried  on  through  credit.  A  manufacturer  gives  bis 
note  in  payment  for  the  materials  he  must  have.  He  expects  to  pay  off  the 
note  from  the  proceeds  of  the  business  made  possible  from  these  materials. 
The  note  based  on  credit  is  a  substitute  for  money. 

^  This  view,  of  course,  expresses  the  lender's  side  of  the  question. 


THE  COUNTRY  STORE  455 

been  harmful  to  farmers.  In  no  part  of  the  country  have 
local  merchants  developed  a  more  vicious  system  of  agri- 
cultural credit  than  they  have  in  the  South.  It  has  been 
the  custom  of  the  storekeepers  of  this  section  to  advance 
corn  and  bacon  and  such  other  produce  as  the  poor  farmers 
needed,  expecting  to  be  paid  from  the  proceeds  of  the 
cotton  crop.  Cotton  in  the  South  is  the  main  money  crop, 
and  this  crop  is  often  mortgaged  to  the  storekeeper.  The 
farmer  in  consequence  is  obliged  to  get  his  produce  from 
the  man  who  holds  the  mortgage  and  is  further  required 
to  plant  cotton  to  the  exclusion  of  other  crops.  The  evils 
of  this  one-crop  system  naturally  multiply,  the  land  becom- 
ing poorer  and  poorer.  Diversified  farming  to  the  extent 
of  raising  corn  and  bacon  is  discouraged  by  the  local  mer- 
chants for  the  obvious  reason  that  the  raising  of  these 
necessities  would  decrease  their  trade,  since  corn  and  bacon 
are  the  chief  articles  advanced  by  the  merchants.  For 
years  one  of  the  chief  handicaps  to  a  better  agricultural 
life  in  the  South  has  been  this  baneful  type  of  credit. 

In  justice  to  the  local  merchants  it  must  be  said,  how- 
ever, that  it  is  often  necessary  for  them  to  supervise  the 
type  of  farming  out  of  sheer  self-defense  on  account  of  the 
fact  that  some  of  the  farmers  are  thriftless  and  lightly  re- 
gard their  financial  obligations. 

It  has  been  discovered  in  North  Dakota,  from  a  ques- 
tionnaire sent  to  54  hardware  dealers  supplying  goods  to 
farmers,  that  only  13  per  cent  pay  cash  and  87  per  cent 
ask  for  credit;  that  most  of  the  transactions  are  book 
transactions,  and  that  the  average  account  runs  over  a  year, 
or  more  exactly  12.37  months.  The  average  rate  of  inter- 
est on  the  notes  held  by  these  dealers  against  the  farmers  is 
10.26  per  cent.  It  often  happens  if  a  crop  fails  and  the 
farmer  is  unable  to  pay  the  principal,  the  dealers  must  keep 
the  account  open  for  another  year.     While  the  country 


456 


FARM  FINANCE 


store  has  often  been  of  genuine  service  to  farmers  in 
exchanging  produce  which  farmers  do  not  need  for  sup- 
plies which  they  must  have,  yet  the  main  evil  arises  when 
merchants  are  in  a  position  to  dictate  the  type  of  agricul- 
ture to  be  followed. 

We  will  now  see  what  is  the  relation  of  commercial 
banks  to  rural  credits. 

329.  Bank  Credit.  —  Bank  credit  is  better  suited  to  the 
needs  of  agriculture  than  is  store  credit.     When  a  farmer 

goes  to  the  bank  he  gets 
cash  and  can  then  buy 
where  he  pleases.  He 
at  once  becomes  more 
independent.  Banks  are 
middlemen  and  desire 
short  or  long  loans  on 
tangible  security, — 
short  loans  of  from  30 
to  90  days,  so  that  they 
can  often  turn  over  their 
money  during  the  year ; 
long  loans,  and  this  is 
especially  true  of  sav- 
ings banks,  so  that  they 
can  have  a  permanent  in- 
vestment of  their  funds. 
In  either  case  the  terras 
and  conditions  of  the 
loans  may  not  fit  in  to 
the  requirements  of  agriculture.  However,  from  a  recent 
report  of  the  Comptroller  of  Currency  of  the  United 
States  our  banks  held  outstanding  loans  of  #1,769,000,000, 
which  was  mostly  on  farm  mortgages. 

Mortgage  loans,  while  of  excellent  help  in  securing  title 


Farmers'  Bank. 


COOPERATIVE  LAND  BANKS  467 

to  land,  are  not  well  adapted  to  raising  money  for  buying 
seeds,  tools,  fertilizers,  and  household  supplies,  for  the 
reason  that  the  long  time  the  mortgage  usually  runs,  from 
three  to  five  years,  is  not  well  suited  to  such  purposes. 
Neither  do  the  terms  of  bank  loans  nor  their  rates  suit  the 
needs  of  farmers.  A  farmer  must  often  pay  from  four  to 
six  per  cent  more  interest  than  the  manufacturer.  For 
these  and  other  reasons  there  are  coming  into  existence  in 
this  country,  as  there  have  been  in  Europe  for  more  than 
half  a  century,  banks  known  as  cooperative  land  banks. 

330.  Cooperative  Land  Banks.  —  The  following  are  the 
chief  characteristics  of  cooperative  land  banks. 

1.  They  are  organized  and  managed  by  and  for  the 
farmers  themselves. 

2.  Loans  are  made  to  farmers  at  the  lowest  possible 
rate  and  for  as  long  a  time  as  needed,  but  for  provident 
and  productive  enterprises  only. 

3.  The  funds  for  these  loans  are  borrowed  mostly  from 
outside  sources.  Some  cooperative  banks  sell  stock  to 
members  to  raise  some  of  the  funds. 

4.  The  security  required  is  personal,  a  responsible 
neighbor  or  two  indorsing  the  note  of  the  borrower. 

5.  Each  member  is  jointly  liable  for  his  share  of  the 
debts  of  the  bank,  and  in  Europe  that  liability  is  often 
unlimited. 

6.  The  sphere  of  activity  of  each  of  these  banks  is 
local,  what  we  might  call  a  school  district,  each  member 
thus  being  able  to  investigate  the  purpose  for  which  the 
loan  is  to  be  made. 

These  are  the  main  characteristics  of  cooperative 
banks  as  they  have  been  organized  in  Europe.  We  can 
understand  much  better  the  great  part  they  can  play  in 
farm  finance  if  we  learn  the  thrilling  story  of  Herr 
Raiffeisen. 


468  FARM  FINANCE 

Who  was  Herr  Raiffeisen  ?  —  During  the  middle  of  the 
last  century  there  lived  in  Westerwald,  a  poverty-stricken 
section  of  tlie  province  of  Westphalia,  on  the  Rhine,  a 
well-to-do  and  kind-hearted  gentleman  by  the  name  of 
Raiffeisen.  Herr  Raiffeisen  dearly  loved  his  neighbors, 
who  were  mostly  poor  German  peasants.  He  studied 
how  he  could  relieve  their  sufferings  and  make  their  lives 
more  enjoyable.  He  saw  that  these  peasants  were  not 
ignorant  as  a  rule  and  that  they  knew  how  to  farm,  how 
to  sow  their  seeds,  how  to  cultivate  the  soil,  and  how  to 
garner  their  crops.  But  there  was  distress  everywhere. 
No  one  doubted  that,  and  no  one  seemed  to  know  just 
why.  The  poor  peasants  had  great  confidence  in  the 
wisdom  of  Raiffeisen  and  for  this  reason  they  chose  him 
to  be  the  Burgomeister  of  the  little  farming  village  of 
Weyerbusch. 

Herr  Raiffeisen,  after  having  made  a  most  careful  study 
of  the  causes  of  this  widespread  distress,  gave  it  as  his 
opinion  that  the  chief  cause  was  lack  of  cooperation^  espe- 
cially in  money  matters.  Here  he  saw  poor  German 
women  wending  their  weary  way  to  a  distant  market, 
each  bearing  a  load  of  sufficient  weight  to  burden  a 
horse,  while  a  neighbor's  team  was  standing  idle,  in  the 
stall.  There  he  saw  Jewish  and  Christian  money  lenders, 
exacting  their  usurious  and  exorbitant  gains  from  the 
peasant  farmers,  —  farmers  who  individually  were  at  the 
mercy  of  these  loan  sharks.  Each  farmer  was  trying  to 
fight  his  battles  alone.  To  add  to  their  misfortunes  a 
famine  for  which  the  peasants  were  in  no  way  responsible 
was  also  upon  them.  This  was  in  the  years  1846  and 
1847. 

Herr  Raiffeisen's  first  step  toward  practical  cooperation 
was  to  establish  a  cooperative  bakery  through  which  the 
peasants  might   buy  their   bread  at  about  one  half  the 


COOPERATIVE  LAND  BANES  469 

regular  selling  price.  He  then  organized  a  cooperative 
association  for  the  purchasing  of  cattle.  Both  ventures 
were  highly  successful  from  the  start. 

Raiffeisen  then  gathered  these  good,  honest,  but  poverty- 
stricken  peasants  together  and  explained  to  them  in  plain 
speech  that  the  cause  of  most  of  their  woes  was  their  own 
mistrust  of  one  another.  He  told  them  to  get  together 
and  combine  their  resources,  forget  their  differences, 
and  present  a  united  front  to  the  evils  which  oppressed 
them. 

"  If  you  who  trust  one  another  organize  into  a  society 
to  form  a  savings  and  loan  bank  to  which  character  is  the 
prime  requisite  for  membership  and  to  which  you  will 
pledge  all  the  property  you  own,  we  can  dig  a  channel 
for  credit.  We  will  keep  our  own  money  in  the  district 
and  we  will  attract  savings.  Bankers  will  loan  on  the 
property  of  all  of  us,  so  that  money  will  come  to  us  when 
we  need  it  to  help  us  in  our  production.  Indirectly  the 
whole  district  will  benefit. 

"  We  can  accept  savings  from  anybody,  but  loan  only  to 
members,  and  to  them  only  for  purposes  which  will  bring 
increase.  We  will  pay  only  a  moderate  interest  on 
savings,  and  then  it  will  be  necessary  to  ask  members  to 
pay  only  a  little  more  for  their  loans.  To  make  a  loan 
we  may  take  the  same  sort  of  securities  as  other  banks. 
We  may  loan  on  personal  security  if  we  keep  a  high 
standard  of  membership.  If  money  is  needed  for  any 
reason,  any  one  of  you  may  go  to  your  neighbor  and 
show  him  what  you  want  to  do  and  why  it  will  be 
profitable  for  you  to  do  it.  If  he  approves  it,  bring  him 
with  you  to  the  bank.  If  he  is  willing  to  sign  your  note, 
becoming  your  surety,  the  bank  must  consider  the  loan, 
investigate  it,  and  upon  your  promise  to  use  it  for  the 
purpose  stated  will  advance  you  the  money. 


460  FARM  FINANCE 

"  You  cannot  borrow  money  to  pay  your  debts,  or  to 
invest  so  the  return  will  be  uncertain  or  in  any  but  provi- 
dent ventures.  Not  all  of  you  will  need  money,  but 
there  is  none  of  you  who  may  not  require  funds  to  buy 
seeds  or  fertilizer  or  machinery.  It  is  clearly  a  matter  of 
wisdom  for  you  to  protect  yourself  by  having  open  to  you 
some  source  of  credit.  This  you  may  have  if  you  all 
stand  together  in  brotherhood.  You  must  each  watch  to 
see  that  the  bank's  money  is  properly  spent,  and  give  serv- 
ice wisely,  willingly,  and  unseltishly." 

From  this  lengthy  quotation,  taken  from  a  recent  article 
by  John  L.  Matthews,  we  shall  not  be  surprised  to  learn 
that  the  Raiffeisen  idea  of  cooperative  credit  spread  widely 
over  Germany.  Indeed,  the  Raiffeisen  banking  system 
comprises  about  15,000  local  banks,  having  a  membership 
of  over  2,000,000.  The  aggregate  yearly  business  of  these 
banks  is  nearly  *  1,500,000,000.1 

331.  Land  Banks  in  America.  —  Fortunately,  in  America 
we  do  not  have  to  work  in  the  dark.  In  attempting  to 
extend  credit  facilities  to  rural  communities  we  have  the 
light  of  foreign  experience  to  guide  us.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary, however,  to  remind  the  average  American  that  Ger- 
many is  not  America  and  that  German  conditions  are  not 
exactly  similar  to  American  conditions.* 

Nevertheless  many  of  the  principles  worked  out  and  so 


>  Sir  Horace  Plankett,  the  famous  Irish  raral  economist,  states  that  the 
Raiffeisen  idea  has  done  as  much  for  Germany  as  has  the  invention  of  the 
steam  engine. 

2  Farms  in  Grermany  average  10  to  15  acres  apiece  and  throughout  Europe 
farmers  live  mostly  in  small  villages.  The  average  farm  in  the  United  States 
is  more  than  100  acres.  In  the  west  the  federal  homestead  act  requiring  the 
domiciling  of  the  farmer  on  his  farm  and  regulating  the  size  of  the  farm 
makes  conditions  there  especially  different  from  those  abroad.  Cooperation  in 
America  is  naturally  more  difficult.  Then,  too,  we  do  not  have  a  real  peasantry 
here.  Our  farmers  pro<luce  yearly  from  §8,000,000,000  to  810,000,000,000,  and 
are  virtually  independent.    See  Appendix  A,  Chart  VIII,  page  470. 


COOPERATIVE  LAND  BANKS  461 

successfully  applied  by  Herr  Raiffeisen  and  his  co-workers 
of  his  own  country  and  of  France  and  Italy  are  so  broad 
and  sound  that  with  proper  adaptation  to  suit  American 
conditions  they  should  form  a  basis  for  the  rural  credit 
legislation  of  both  state  and  nation. 

The  excellent  record  of  our  building  and  loan  associa- 
tions and  of  our  mutual  savings  banks  shows  that  the  co- 
operative principle  in  banking  can  be  extended  to  serve 
our  farmers  in  a  more  vital  way. 

We  need  an  agency  which  will  aid  the  deserving  man 
without  property  to  borrow  small  amounts  for  provident 
purposes  at  low  rates  and  on  easy  terms  for  repay- 
ment, the  personal  security  being  based  largely  on 
character,  thrift,  industry,  and  sobriety.  We  need  an 
association  of  good  members  rather  than  a  large  supply 
of  capital. 

The  first  state  to  pass  a  law  to  provide  for  an  adequate 
system  of  rural  credits  was  Massachusetts.  This  was  in 
the  year  1909.  The  Massachusetts  law,  however,  while 
based  on  the  Raiffeisen  idea  and  on  the  well-known  prin- 
ciples of  our  savings  and  loan  associations,  provides  for 
credit  unions  in  general  and  is  not  restricted  to  credit  ac- 
commodations to  farmers.  The  credit  union  considers  the 
object  for  which  the  loan  is  to  be  used  quite  as  much  as 
its  security.  It  seeks  to  discourage  unwise  borrowing. 
As  M.  Desjardins,  a  celebrated  Canadian  student  of  rural 
credits,  observes,  "  It  tries  to  transform  moral  qualities 
into  valuable  assets  and  brings  to  the  industrious  and 
thrifty  man  a  higher  reward  than  mere  wages  —  the  con- 
fidence of  his  fellow  men." 

In  1915  Massachusetts  authorized  the  establishment  of 
farm  land  banks  with  a  capital  stock  of  not  less  than 
i  50,000.  '  These  state  land  banks  may  issue  debenture 
bonds  (instruments  issued  as  evidence  of  debt)  based  on 


462  FARM  FINANCE 

farm  mortgages,  which  are  a  first  lien  and  may  not  be  in 
excess  of  50  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  property.  The 
term  of  the  farm  loans  ranges  from  five  to  thirty-five 
years.  New  York  state  also  has  a  law  with  the  same  gen- 
eral features. 

In  order  to  meet  the  need  for  rural  credits  more  effec- 
tively and  to  provide  a  more  general  scheme  for  their 
organization  and  supervision,  it  has  been  thought  that 
Congress  was  in  a  better  position  to  cope  with  the  problem 
than  the  several  states  individually.  Accordingly  there 
was  established  in  July,  1916,  at  Washington  a  new  Fed- 
eral Land  Bank  System. 

332.  Federal  Land  Banks.  —  The  federal  land  bank  bill 
for  rural  credits  is  the  result  of  considerable  agitation  and 
study  covering  more  than  a  decade.  Congress  sent  a 
commission  abroad  to  study  the  problem.  The  need  of 
better  financial  facilities  for  the  open  country  was  clearly 
recognized  by  all  parties  alike.  Little  opposition  to  it  in 
Congress  was  encountered.  The  provisions  of  the  new 
law  are  generally  held  to  be  sound  and  well  suited  to 
American  farm  life. 

The  federal  land  bank  law  follows  in  a  general  way  the 
main  features  of  the  recent  Federal  Reserve  Banking  Act, 
a  companion  measure.  It  provides  for  a  Federal  Farm 
Loan  Board,  consisting  of  five  members,  one  of  whom  is 
the  Secretary  of  tlie  Treasury.  The  continental  United 
States  is  divided  into  twelve  districts,  in  each  of  which 
there  is  to  be  established  a  land  bank  with  a  capital  stock 
of  not  less  than  $750,000.  The  capital  stock  of  these 
district  banks  may  be  subscribed  by  any  one.  However, 
5  per  cent  of  each  loan  made  to  farmers  must  be  deposited 
in  the  farm  loan  association  for  the  land  bank  stock  of  its 
district. 

The  farm  loan  associations   reach   the   farm   directly. 


COOPERATIVE  LAND   BANKS  463 

Each  of  them  is  made  up  of  ten  or  more  farmers,  and 
their  affairs  are  managed  by  a  secretary-treasurer. 

Let  us  take  a  concrete  case  to  see  how  the  Federal 
Land  Bank  System  works.  A  farmer  desires  to  borrow 
money  for  farm  purposes.  He  comes  to  the  manager  of 
the  local  loan  association  and  says  that  his  land  is  worth,  — 
let  us  say  *|1500,  and  the  improvements  on  it,  8500.  The 
manager  states  that  if  he  finds  the  land  and  improvements 
as  claimed  by  the  farmer  and  the  farmer's  title  to  the 
property  unquestioned,  he  can  advance  him  8900  or  60 
per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  land  and  8100  or  20  per  cent 
of  the  value  of  the  improvements,  a  total  of  81000  in  all. 
But  before  advancing  the  money  the  farmer  must  join  the 
loan  association,  unless  he  is  already  a  member,  must  take 
5  per  cent  of  his  loan  in  stock,  and  must  assume  10  per 
cent  of  his  loan  as  liability  against  the  possible  losses  of 
the  other  members.  Thus  the  farmer  really  receives  but 
8950  on  his  property.  The  850  worth  of  stock  is  to  be 
turned  over  by  the  local  association  to  the  district  land 
bank.  When  the  loan  is  paid,  the  farmer  is  credited  with 
the  value  of  this  stock,  which  is  then  canceled. 

Farmers  can  also  borrow  on  their  crops  and  stock,  and 
the  Federal  Reserve  Banks  will  rediscount  farmers'  notes 
based  on  current  farm  operations. 

The  debentures  issued  by  the  land  banks  pay  1  per  cent 
less  interest  than  their  underlying  farm  mortgages,  and 
the  redemption  of  the  debentures  issued  by  any  land  bank 
is  guaranteed  by  the  resources  of  all  the  land  banks. 

Some  advantages  of  the  Cooperative  Land  Bank  System 
are  :  interest  rates  are  reduced  ;  small  annual  payments 
may  be  made  on  long  term  loans  ;  farm  first  mortgages 
become  bankable  assets  ;  the  federal  government  supervises 
and  secures  money  for  the  farmer  at  least  cost ;  there  is  also 
economic  and  social  cooperation  among  the  farmers. 


464  FARM  FINANCE 

333.  The  Outlook.  —  Now  that  the  Federal  Land  Bank 
System  has  been  organized  for  the  farmers ;  now  that  the 
Smith-Lever  law  (page  56)  provides  generous  sums  to  the 
several  states  for  agricultural  extension  work ;  and  now 
that  there  are  so  many  other  evidences  of  cooperation 
among  farmers  themselves  and  between  the  government 
and  the  farmers  we  may  confidently  expect  a  general  im- 
provement in  rural  conditions,  —  better  homes,  better 
schools,  better  roads. 

This  new  cooperative  point  of  view,  while  not  weaken- 
ing the  farmer's  rugged  individuality,  places  strong 
emphasis  on  group  action,  community  building,  efficient 
citizenship.  Agricultural  preparedness  is  to-day,  and 
probably  will  remain  for  years  to  come,  a  pressing  problem. 
Bankers,  teachers,  scientists,  statesmen,  —  all  leaders  alike, 
must  work  together  to  mobilize  our  agricultural  re- 
sources and  must  seek  to  make  more  effective  the  lives  of 
our  numerous  farm  folk,  who  live  apart  —  often  out  of 
touch  with  the  impulses  which  direct  our  national  think- 
ing. The  call  of  America  is  the  call  to  serve  its  institu- 
tions, and  no  institution  is  more  typical  of  American  life 
and  more  of  a  bulwark  to  it  than  our  plain  farm  home, 
where  there  is  prosperity  and  vision. 

Peactical  Questions 

1.  Is  unused  knowledge  of  farming  valuable?  2.  What  is  the 
purpose  of  the  "  Home  Exercises  "  ?  3.  How  have  American  resources 
helped  the  American  farmer?  4.  In  what  sense  is  farming  now 
coming  to  be  a  business?  5.  What  is  farm  capital  ?  6.  How  does 
wealth  differ  from  capital?  7.  In  what  sense  does  credit  differ  from 
capital?  8.  Discuss  the  relation  between  our  growing  tenancy  and  our 
lack  of  farm  capital.  9.  Why  in  the  early  days  was  there  little  need 
of  capital  ?  10.  In  what  sense  has  our  industrial  development  out- 
run our  agricultural  development?  11.  What  has  been  the  main 
cause  of  our  decrease  in  exports  and  our  increase  in  imports  ?  12.  How 
has   the    country  store    been    an    injury   to  the  southern  farmer? 


REFERENCES  465 

13.  What  objection  is  there  to  credit  given  by  ordinary  commercial 
banks?  14.  What  are  some  of  the  characteristics  of  cooperative 
land  banks?  15.  What  did  Herr  RaifEeisen  do  for  his  neighbors? 
16.   Discuss  rural  credits  in  the  United  States. 

Home  Exercises 

1.  Ask  some  one  at  home  what  the  prevailing  rate  of  interest  is 
and  how  long  different  kinds  of  loans  are  usually  made  to  run. 

2.  While  it  is  very  natural  for  people  not  to  want  the  general 
public  to  have  too  much  information  on  their  private  affairs,  yet  it  is 
poasible  without  giving  the  least  offense  to  make  a  copy  of  blank 
mortgages,  notes,  and  other  business  papers  of  the  farm  and  have  the 
copy  brought  to  school  for  explanation.  If  no  blank  papers  can  be 
found  among  the  patrons  at  home,  no  doubt  the  local  Justice  of  the 
Peace  would  supply  them. 

3.  If  some  one  would  loan  your  father  $  100  for  six  months  for  any 
farm  purpose,  how  nmch  do  you  think  he  might  make  with  the 
money  ? 

4.  Would  it  pay  to  borrow  f  200  to  buy  improved  farm  machinery? 
Figure  this  out  on  the  basis  of  labor  cost  which  would  be  saved. 

Suggestions 

1.  One  of  the  first  needs  of  many  farmers  is  to  keep  accurate  ac- 
count of  their  business  operations.  If  the  average  business  man  knew 
as  little  about  the  money  end  of  his  affairs  as  the  average  farmer 
knows  about  his  receipts  and  expenditures,  there  would  be  much  more 
financial  distress  to-day  than  there  is.  In  most  cases  it  is  not  necessary 
to  keep  on  paper  an  elaborate  account  of  all  minor  farm  operations. 
Some  transactions  may  be  carried  in  the  head.  But  the  tendency  is 
to  try  to  carry  too  much  in  the  head.  J'armers  should  have  a  simple 
method  of  bookkeeping. 

2.  Before  a  dollar  is  borrowed  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  to  be  used 
should  be  clearly  thought  out  and  discussed.  Under  the  rural  credit 
system  this  discussion  must  be  with  the  other  members  of  the  union. 

3.  It  will  be  easy  to  pay  the  interest  on  the  loans,  but  the  payment 
of  the  principal  is  the  main  difficulty.  Better  not  borrow  than  be 
unable  to  repay. 

4.  The  main  point  to  be  brought  out  in  the  discussion  of  rural 
credits  is  the  long-term  mortgage  having  low  rates  of  interest  with 
repayment  of  principal  in  easy  annual  installments. 


466  FARM  FINANCE 


Keferencrs 


Principles  of  Rural  Economics.     T.  N.  Carver. 
Rural  Wealth  and  Welfare.     Fairchild. 
Farm  Management.     Warren. 
Principles  of  Rural  Credits.     J.  B.  Mortnan. 
Survey.     31  :  690  ;  32  :  307,  '13. 
WorliFs  Work.     26 :  622 ;  27  :  252,  '13. 
Rural  Credit.     No.  Am.  109  :  796-800,  '14. 
Rural  Credit  and  Farm-land  Banks.     Ind.,  78  :  18.5-6,  *14. 
Unjinancial  Farmer.     J.  Parr.     Everi/hody'.'S, -il  iQl-A;  188:200. 
Credit  Union  Primer.     Russell  Sage  Foundation. 
Rural  Credits.     Commonwealth  Club.     San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Cooperation  in   Agriculture,  Marketing  and  Rural   Credit.     Austin 
and  Wehrwein,  University  of  Texas. 
Farm  Bulletins.     Washington,  D.C. 

50.    Diversified  Agriculture  and  the  Relation  of  the  Banker  to 
the  Farm. 

178.   Cooperative  Organization  Business  Methods. 

511.   Farm  Bookkeeping. 

572.   A  System  of  Farm  Cost  Accounting. 

593.   How  to  Use  Farm  Credit. 

654.    How  Farmers  may  Improve  their  Personal  Credit. 

661.    A  Method  of  Analyzing  the  Farm  Business. 


APPENDIX   A 
CHARTS  OF  UNITED  STATES   PRODUCTS 


I.  Wheat  Production  (Chapter  XX.) 


11.   Oat  Production  (Chapter  XX.) 
467 


468 


APPENDIX  A 


III.   Corn  Production  (Chapters  XIV  and  XIX.) 


IV.   Potato  Production  (Chapter  XVII 1.) 


UNITED   STATES  PRODUCTS 


469 


V.    Hay  Production  (Page  279) 


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VI.   Alfalfa  Production  (Page  280) 


470 


APPENDIX  A 


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VII.  Orchard  Production  (Page  301) 


VIM.   United  States  Crop  Values  (Page  460) 


UNITED   STATES  PRODUCTS 


471 


IX.    Distribution  of  Dairy  Cows  (Page  372) 


X.   Distribution  of  Sheep  (Page  413) 


APPENDIX   B 

I.    Value  of  Fabm  Pbopertt  of  thb  United  StatbsI 


Land 

Buildings 

Implements  and  Machinery  .  .  . 
Domestic  Animals,   Poultry,    and 

Bees 

Average  value  of  all  property  per 

farm 

Average  value  of  land  per  acre  .     . 


1910 


$28,475,674,169 
6,326,451,528 
1,265,149,783 

4,925,173,610 

$6,444 
$32.40 


1900 


$  18,058,007,995 

3,656,639,496 

749,776,970 

3,075,477,703 

$3,663 
$15.67 


II.     Farms  Classified  by  Sizb 


Sizs  Obouf 

NUMBKB  OF   FaBMS 

1910 

1900 

All  farms  under  20  acres  .... 

20  to  49  acres 

50  to  99  acres 

100  to  174  acres  

176  to  499  acres 

500  to  999  acres 

1000  acres  and  over 

839,166 

1,414,376 

1,4.38,069 

1,616,286 

978,175 

125,295 

50,135 

673,870 

1,257,496 

1,366,038 

1,422,262 

868,020 

102,626 

47,160 

III.     Number  of  Domestic  Animals 


Chickens 
Cattle  . 
Swine 
Sheep  . 
Horses  . 
Mules 


1910 


280,346,133 
61,803,866 
68,186,676 
52,447,861 
19,8.33,113 
4,209,679 


1900 


283,666,021 
67,719,410 
62,868,041 
61,603,713 
18,267,020 
8,264,615 


1  From  United  States  Censas  Report. 
472 


APPENDIX   C 


AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGES  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


State 

Post  Office 

Statf. 

Pof>r  Office 

Alabama 

Auburn 

Nebraska 

Lincoln 

Arizona 

Tucson 

Nevada 

Reno 

Arkansas 

Fayetteville 

New  Hampshire 

Durham 

California 

Berkeley 

New  Jersey 

New  Brunswick 

Colorado 

Fort  Collins 

New  Mexico 

Agricultural 

Connecticut 

Storrs 

College 

Delaware 

Newark 

New  York 

Ithaca 

Florida 

Gainesville 

North  Carolina 

West  Raleigh 

Georgia 

Athens 

North  Dakota 

Agricultural 

Idaho 

Moscow 

College 

Illinois 

Urbana 

Ohio 

Columbus 

Indiana 

Lafayette 

Oklahoma 

Stillwater 

Iowa 

Ames 

Oregon 

Cornwallis 

Kentucky 

Lexington 

Pennsylvania 

State  College 

Louisiana 

Baton  Rouge 

Rhode  Island 

Kingston 

Maine 

Orono 

South  Carolina 

Clemson  College 

Maryland 

College  Park 

South  Dakota 

Brookings 

Massachusetts 

Amherst 

Tennessee 

Knoxville 

Michigan 

East- Lansing 

Texas 

College  Station 

Minnesota 

St.  Anthony  Park, 

Utah 

Logan 

St.  Paul 

Vermont 

Lexington 

Mississippi 

Agricultural 

"Washington 

Pullman 

College 

"West  "Virginia 

Morgantown 

Missouri 

Columbia 

"Wisconsin 

Madison 

Montana 

Bozeman 

"Wyoming 

Laramie 

473 


APPENDIX   D 

MAGAZINE  ARTICLES  ON  AGRICULTURE 

In  addition  to  the  publications  of  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  the  state  agricultural  colleges  and 
experiment  stations,  there  is  a  variety  of  other  very  accessible 
agencies  which  are  sending  out  valuable  information  on  country 
life.  Prominent  among  these  agencies  are  the  numerous  farm 
jonrnals.  But  just  as  vital  as  these  journals,  perhaps,  and 
often  more  effective  and  resourceful,  are  the  many  excellent 
articles  appearing  from  time  to  time  in  magazines  and  other 
high-class  publications.  All  teachers  and  students  of  farm 
life  can  profit  by  reading  these  articles.  In  recent  issues  the 
following  are  noted : 

Efficiency  Movement  in  its  Relation  to  Agriculture.     N.  J.  Spillman. 

Annals  American  Academy,  59  :  65-76,  May,  1915. 
Marketing  of  Milk  —  How  Farmers  are  driven  out  of  Business.     Current 

Opinion,  59 :  356-356,  November,  1915. 
Agricultural  Efficiency  a  Foundation  for  national  Defense.    H.  H.  Gross. 

Scientific  Monthly,  2  :  380-384,  April,  1916. 
Human  Agriculture.     Outlook,  112  :  9-10,  January  5,  1916. 
Boys'  and  Girls''  Agricultural  Clubs.    G.  A.  Works.    School  and  Society, 

3  :  749-750,  May  20,  1916. 
Country  Life  and  the  Next  Generation.     L.   H.  Bailey.     Independent, 

85  :  .336-338,  March  6,  1916. 
Farm  Accounts  as  They  should  be  Kept.    D.  Buffum.    Country  Life, 

30 :  84,  June,  1916. 
The  County  Agent  and  the  Home.   Journal  Home  Economics,  8  :  199-201, 

April,  1916. 
Open  Letter  to  Secretary  Houston  from  a  Farmer's  Wife.    M.  T).  Shelby. 

Outlook,  111 :  923-925,  December  15,  1915. 
Cost  System  on  a  Missouri  Farm.     F.  A.  Zenders.     Collier's,  57:26, 

April  8,  1916. 

474 


APPENDIX  D  475 

Oh,  the  Poor  Farmer''8  Wife  !  E.  D.  Gates.  Woman's  Home  Compan- 
ion, 43  :  18,  June,  1916. 

Hov)  to  make  the  Farmhouse  Grounds  look  Attractive.  A.  E.  P.  Searing. 
Ladies'  Home  Journal,  33  :  70,  March,  1910. 

Who  Feeds  the  Nation?    E.  Sears.     Harper,  132  :  860-870,  May,  1916. 

Federated  Boys^  and  GirW  Club  Work.  O.  H.  Benson.  National  Educa- 
tional Association,  1914  :  898-905. 

Pig  Assumes  an  Educative  Bole.  Outlook,  111:347-348,  October  13, 
1915. 

Eural  Education  that  Counts.  D.  Cunningham.  Country  Life,  28  :  86, 
October,  1915. 

Agricultural  Education  and  Agricultural  Prosperity.  A.  C.  True. 
Annals  American  Academy,  59  :  61-64,  May,  1915. 

Agricultural  Instruction  for  the  Millions.  Scientific  American,  113  :  461, 
November  27,  1915. 

Massachusetts  Home  Project  Plan  of  Vocational  Agricultural  Education. 
R.  Stimson.     School  Review,  23  :  474-478,  September,  1915. 

Cities  and  Towns  joining  Hands  in  a  Country-wide  Get-together  Move- 
ment. J.  A.  Scheuerle.  Illustrated  American  City,  12  :  312-317, 
April,  1915. 


APPENDIX   E 

SAMPLE   CONSTITUTION  AND  BY-LAWS   OF  A  BOYS' 
PIG  CLUB' 

CONSTITUTION 
Abticle  1.  —  Name 

The  name  of  this  association  shall  be  the  County 

Boys'  Pig  Club  Association. 

.  Article  2.  —  Object 
The  object  of  this  association  shall  be  to  promote  interest 
in  the  breeding  and  improvement  of  high-grade  and  purebred 
swine ;  to  instruct  its  members  in  the  prevention  and  eradica- 
tion of  the  diseases  peculiar  to  swine  ;  and  to  instill  in  the  boys 
a  love  for  farm  animals  which  will  result  in  their  taking  more 
interest  in  farm  life. 

Article  3.  —  Membership 
Any  boy  or  girl  between  the  ages  of  10  and  18  years  who 
will  agree  to  secure  at  least  one  pig  and  care  for  it  under  the 
instructions  furnished  by  the  State  agent  in  pig-club  work  may 
at  any  time  become  a  member. 

Article  4.  —  Organization 
The  officers  shall  be  a  president,  a  vice  president,  and  a 
secretary-treasurer. 

Article  5.  —  Meetings 
There  shall  be  a  regular  annual  meeting  of  the  association 
and  such  special  meetings  at  times  and  places  as  may  be  deter- 
mined by  the  president. 

Article  6.  —  Elections 
The  election  of  officers  shall  be  held  at  the  regvdar  annual 
meeting,  and  such  election  shall  be  by  ballot. 
Article  7.  —  Amendments 
Amendments  to  this  constitution  may  be  made  by  a  two- 
thirds  vote  of  the  members  present  at  the  annual  meeting. 


1  From  the  Bulletin  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

476 


APPENDIX  E  477 

BY-LAWS 

Section  1. — Ditties  and  privileges 
It  shall  be  the  duty  of  each  member  to  cooperate  as  far  as 
possible  with  his  fellow  members  in  the  use  of  purebred  boars  ; 
also  to  solicit  new  members  and  to  encourage  them  in  better 
methods  of  caring  for  their  animals.  Each  member  shall  be 
entitled  to  one  vote  in  the  business  meetings  of  the  association. 

Section  2.  —  Officers 
The  officers  shall  be  elected  to  serve  one  year  and  perform 
such  services  as  are  ordinarily  required  by  their  position.    They 
shall  serve  until  the  election  of  their  successors. 

Section  3.  —  President 
The  president  shall  preside  at  all  meetings  of  the  associa- 
tion.    He  shall  also  collect  all  reports  from  the  club  members 
and  send  them  to  the  State  agent. 

Section  4.  —  Vice  president 
The  vice  president  shall  perform  the  duties  of  the  president 
in  his  absence. 

Section  5.  —  Secretary-Treasurer 
The  secretary-treasurer  shall  keep  a  record  of  all  proceed- 
ings of  the  association,  and  shall  render  a  report  of  the  same 
at  the  annual  meeting ;  shall  act  as  correspondent  in  matters 
pertaining  to  the  business  of  the  association,  and  shall  keep  a 
correct  enrollment  of  all  members. 

Section  6.  —  Order  of  business 
Reading  of  the  minutes  of  the  previous  meeting. 
Report  of  the  secretary-treasurer. 
Reports  of  committees. 
Unfinished  business. 
New  business. 
Election  of  officers. 


APPENDIX   F 

USE  OF  FARMERS'  BULLETINS 

Teachers  sometimes  find  that  many  Farmers'  Bulletins  are 
not  very  teachable,  that  is,  their  subject  matter  lacks  good 
pedagogic  form.  To  meet  this  difficulty  free  leaflets  are  l>e- 
ing  prepared  by  specialists  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Education  to  aid  teachers  in  the  use  of  these  Bulletins. 
The  following  suggestive  outline  is  a  type  of  many  others  that 
are  now  available. 

now   TEACHERS   MAY    USE    FARMERS'    BULLETIN    537, 

HOW   TO   GROW   AN   ACRE   OF  CORN 

By  E.  a.  Millek,  Specialist  in  Agricultural  Edtication 

Range  of  use.  —  General. 

Relation  to  the  course  of  study. — This  bulletin  may  be  used  in  the 
study  of  agriculture  in  connection  with  crops  in  general  and  com  in  par- 
ticular. The  topics  of  the  publication  lend  themselves  to  correlation  with 
other  school  subjects. 

Topics.  —  The  material  of  the  bulletin  should  be  grouped  into  six 
les-sons  for  class  study:  (1)  Getting  a  start  with  seed  —  kind  of  com  to 
grow,  selecting  seed  for  the  acre,  and  preparing  seed  for  planting,  pages 
5,  6,  7,  and  9 ;  (2)  making  a  start  with  the  crop  —  selecting  an  acre  for 
corn,  fertilizing  the  acre,  and  preparing  the  seed  bed,  pages  10, 11,  12,  13, 
and  14;  (3)  planting,  pages  14  and  15;  (4)  the  growing  period  —  com- 
bating cutworms,  thinning,  and  cultivation,  pages  15,  16,  17,  and  18 ; 
(5)  improvement  work  —  selecting  seed  and  drying  and  caring  for  seed, 
pages  7,  18,  19,  and  20 ;  (6)  determining  yield  and  conclusion,  pages  20 
and  21. 

Study  questions. — What  races  of  corn  are  grown  in  the  community? 
Flint  ?  Dent  ?  Sweet  ?  Pop  ?  Soft  ?  Which  is  the  better  adapted 
to  the  community,  flint  or  dent  ?  Is  com  grown  as  a  money  crop  ? 
What  varieties  have  succeeded  best  in  the  community  ?  Are  one-eared 
or  prolific  varieties  best  adapted  to  the  section  ?    Is  it  the  practice  in  the 

478 


APPENDIX  F  479 

community  to  sort  and  test  seed  com  ?  What  type  of  soil  in  the  com- 
munity produces  the  largest  yield  ?  What  characteristics  indicate  a  good 
corn  soil  ?  What  leguminous  crops  should  precede  corn  ?  What  are 
guard  rows  ?  Why  should  they  be  planted  ?  What  are  the  advantages 
of  good  manure  ?  When  should  it  be  applied  to  the  land  ?  Why  and 
when  should  lime  be  applied  ?  What  essential  elements  are  supplied 
by  commercial  fertilizers?  In  what  inexpensive  way  may  nitrogen  be 
stored  in  the  soil  ?  How  and  when  should  commercial  fertilizers  be 
applied  to  the  soil  for  com  ?  When  and  how  should  the  seed  bed  be 
prepared  ?  What  kinds  of  plows  are  used  in  the  community  ?  What 
kinds  of  harrows  ?  Is  deep  plowing  practiced  ?  What  are  the  advan- 
tages of  deep  plowing  ?  What  constitutes  good  plowing  ?  Poor  plowing  ? 
What  implements  are  used  for  planting  corn  ?  Is  corn  planted  in  drills 
or  in  checks  ?  What  should  determine  the  distance  in  planting  corn  ? 
To  what  depth  should  com  be  covered  ?  What  are  cutworms  ?  In  what 
way  do  they  damage  corn  ?  How  can  they  be  successfully  combated  ? 
When  and  how  should  corn  be  thinned  ?  Give  reasons  for  cultivation. 
For  shallow  cultivation.  How  frequently  should  corn  be  cultivated  ? 
Why  should  seed  be  selected  in  the  field  ?  What  should  characterize 
a  good  stalk  ?  A  good  ear  ?  When  should  the  selected  ears  be  gathered  ? 
Give  directions  for  drying  and  storing  seed  corn.  Give  a  desirable  plan 
for  determining  the  yield  of  an  acre  of  com. 

Illustrative  material.  —  Secure  and  label  specimens  of  the  different 
races  and  varieties  of  corn.  Secure  from  farm  papers  and  catalogues 
pictures  of  races  and  varieties  of  corn,  plows,  corn  planters,  cultivators, 
and  harvesting  machinery.     See  illustrations  in  the  bulletin. 

Practical  exercises.  —  (1)  Selecting  in  the  field,  gathering,  storing, 
judging,  and  testing  corn.  Mixing  fertilizers  and  studying  farm  machin- 
ery afford  suitable  practicums.  (2)  Corn-club  members  get  profitable 
home  work  in  growing  an  acre  of  corn. 

Correlations.  —  Language  :  Require  the  members  of  the  class  to  write 
accounts  of  field  trips  for  seed  selection,  descriptions  of  sand  tray  and 
rag-doll  testers,  and  descriptions  of  farm  machinery.  List  and  spell  all 
new  words  appearing  in  these  studies. 

Drawing  :  Make  drawings  of  the  different  seed  testers  used  and  proper 
and  ill-shaped  grains. 

Geography  :  Locate  on  the  map  the  10  leading  corn-producing  States. 
Compare  them  as  to  location,  climate,  and  other  agricultural  industries. 
In  what  other  countries  is  com  grown  ?  Compare  these  countries  with 
the  corn-growing  States  as  to  longitude,  latitude,  climate,  and  other  agri- 
cultural industries.  What  part  of  the  corn  crop  of  the  United  States  is 
exported  ?    What  countries  constitute  our  corn  markets  ?    What  is  the 


480  APPENDIX  F 

principal  grain  market  of  the  United  States  ?  Compare  the  total  and  the 
average  production  per  acre  in  your  own  State  with  that  of  the  leading 
com  State.  Is  the  average  yield  per  acre  in  your  State  above  or  below 
the  average  for  the  whole  country  ? 

History:  Where  is  com  native?  Why  is  it  called  "Indian  com"? 
What  other  crop  were  the  Indians  growing  ?  Require  each  member  of 
the  class  to  write  an  account  of  the  corn-club  movement. 

Arithmetic  :  Problems  adapted  to  the  advancement  of  the  pupils  should 
be  developed  from  the  reports  of  corn-club  members. 

Make  a  community  com  survey  to  determine  these  facts:  (1)  The 
number  of  farms  growing  com,  (2)  the  number  of  bushels  produced  on 
each  farm,  (3)  the  total  number  of  bushels  produced,  (4)  the  average 
number  of  bushels  produced  per  farm,  (6)  the  average  number  of  bushels 
produced  per  acre,  (6>  the  total  value  of  the  crop  produced  in  the  com- 
munity, and  (7)  the  number  of  bushels  bought  or  sold  by  the  community. 


APPENDIX    G 

REPORT  OF  A  PUPIL'S  PROJECT 

Mr.  Layton  S.  Hawkins,  Specialist  in  Agricultural  Education 
for  New  York  State,  recently  published  the  following  record, 
which  was  prepared  and  submitted  by  a  pupil  in  the  agricul- 
tural department  of  a  New  York  high  school  as  part  of  his 
work  for  the  year  1913.  Also  on  page  486  may  be  found  a 
condensed  report  on  home  projects  as  carried  on  by  the  differ- 
ent pupils  of  the  high  school. 

PUPIL'S  PROJECT  STUDY  RECORD 

The  equipment  used  consisted  of  two  acres  of  land  sloping  toward  the 
south  and  east,  a  barn  28  by  20  feet  with  three  and  one  half  stories.  The 
two  lower  floors  were  fitted  up  with  roosts,  nests,  dropping  boards,  and 
other  essentials  for  a  henhouse.  Each  fowl  has  8  inches  of  roost  and 
2^  square  feet  of  floor  space.  On  the  south  side  of  the  barn  there  are 
openings  fitted  with  cloth  frames  to  keep  out  rain,  let  in  light,  and  pro- 
vide good  ventilation.  Even  on  stormy  days  these  frames  are  opened  for 
a  little  while  in  order  to  air  out  the  coops.  The  nests  are  placed  under 
the  dropping  boards,  where  they  are  secluded  and  convenient.  I  try  to 
make  the  coops  as  cheerful  and  bright  as  possible,  because  a  happy  hen 
is  a  laying  hen.  I  whitewashed  the  interior  of  the  coop  thoroughly, 
adding  a  pint  of  carbolic  acid  to  50  gallons  of  whitewash.  This  was  put 
on  with  a  bucket  sprayer.  This  spray  is  both  a  good  disinfectant  and 
insecticide. 

For  litter  I  use  corn  stalks  cut  into  short  lengths,  because  I  have  these 
on  hand. 

There  was  also  a  coop  12  by  48  feet.  This  coop  had  a  ground  floor 
only,  so  I  placed  12  inch,  inch  mesh,  poultry  netting  around  the  bottom 
to  keep  the  rats  out.  During  the  winter,  hens  are  kept  in  this  coop,  but 
last  spring  it  was  used  for  a  brooder  house. 

The  chickens  were  hatched  in  eight  Cycle  hatchers  with  a  capacity  of 
50  eggs  each.    These  incubators  are  all  metal,  economic,  durable,  and 

481 


482  APPENDIX  G 

have  proved  practical.  The  lamp  is  in  the  center  and  the  eggs  are  placed 
around  it  in  three  rows,  with  the  small  end  down  and  toward  the  lamp. 
The  eggs  are  kepi  at  a  temperature  varying  from  102  degrees  Fahrenheit 
the  first  week  to  103  the  last  week  of  incubation. 

The  chickens  were  left  in  the  incubators  until  the  oldest  were  36  hours 
old,  when  all  the  healthy  dried  ones  were  removed  to  the  brooder,  where 
they  were  fed  a  mixture  of  sand,  bread  crumbs,  and  hard-boiled  eggs 
chopped  fine.  The  chickens  were  kept  at  a  temperature  of  about  95 
degrees  for  the  first  two  days,  then  the  heat  was  reduced  gradually  as 
the  chickens  grew  older.  Gradually  a  little  oatmeal  was  added  to  the 
ration. 

The  brooder  consists  of  a  3  foot  square  box,  12  inches  high,  with  sheet 
iron  nailed  on  top,  with  a  1  inch  space  between  it  and  the  board  floor. 
In  the  middle  of  the  floor  a  hole  6  inches  in  diameter  was  cut  and  a 
2  quart  basin  nailed  over  it,  the  basin  having  several  holes  in  it.  On  the 
edge  of  the  floor  are  upright  boards  to  keep  the  litter  and  chickens  inside. 
A  2  foot  square  hover  with  a  slit  flannel  drapery  on  the  edge  was  placed 
over  the  basin  on  four  <i-inch  legs,  one  at  each  corner.  Now  a  bracket 
lamp  is  put  into  the  box  under  the  hover.  The  chickens  are  led  from  the 
hovers  by  means  of  an  inclined  board  covered  with  dirt. 

There  were  eight  of  these  hovers,  with  a  capacity  of  60  to  60  chicks 
each,  placed  in  the  12  by  48  foot  coop.  The  chickens  were  provided  with 
runs  inside  and  outdoors.  These  brooders  were  a  constant  worry  because 
a  kerosene  lamp  cannot  be  depended  upon.  I  intend  to  install  a  hot- 
water  system  next  season  if  possible. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  season  the  chickens  grew  well,  but  later,  as 
the  weather  turned  bad  and  rats  got  into  the  coop,  we  moved  brooders 
and  chickens  outdoors.  On  account  of  the  sudden  change  I  lost  quite  a 
number  of  them,  perhaps  more  than  the  rats  would  have  killed. 

When  the  chickens  were  eight  weeks  old,  I  separated  the  cockerels 
from  the  pullets  and  fed  them  a  fattening  ration.  At  ten  weeks  those 
that  were  not  fit  to  save  for  breeding  purposes  I  shipped  alive  to  a  com- 
mission merchant  who  handles  our  products.  I  received  an  average  of 
twenty-four  cents  a  pound  for  them. 

We  keep  two  strains  of  single-combed  white  leghorns,  and  so  we  had 
to  leg-band  some  of  the  chickens.  As  soon  as  the  young  stock  were  old 
enough,  I  laid  a  cement  floor  in  their  coop  to  keep  out  rats.  The  coops 
were  already  fitted  up  with  dropping  boards,  roosts,  and  nests.  Of  the 
760  chickens  hatched,  we  now  have  320  pullets  and  26  cockerels  fit  for 
breeding. 

The  first  pullet  commenced  laying  September  Ist. 

The  work  of  taking  care  of  the  youug  stxxsk  consisted  of  cutting  hay 


APPENDIX  G  488 

for  litter,  cleaning  the  hovers  at  least  once  a  week,  regulating  the  diet  of 
the  chickens  as  far  as  possible,  and  spraying  the  hovers  with  kerosene  and 
carbolic  acid  once  every  two  weeks.  The  brooder  lamps  had  to  be  filled 
every  other  day  and  trimmed  every  day.  Green  food  was  furnished  in 
the  form  of  finely  cut  lawn  clippings  and  sprouted  oats.  The  chickens 
of  certain  matings  had  to  be  leg-banded  and  kept  separate. 

In  picking  out  the  cockerels  for  next  year's  breeding  pen,  I  chose  them 
from  the  early  hatches  in  order  to  have  them  mature  next  spring  when 
I  wish  to  use  them.  In  picking  out  the  cockerels,  I  follow  the  "  Ameri- 
can standard  of  perfection,"  and  what  I  have  learned.  I  select  cockerels 
which  are  well  formed,  large,  having  pure  white  plumage,  a  well-developed 
tail  standing  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  clear  colored  yellow  legs,  bright 
eyed,  five  distinct  points  on  their  combs,  white  ear  lobed,  and  which  crow 
the  most  because  crowing  denotes  vigor.  Of  course  it  is  impossible  to  get 
all  these  good  qualities  well  developed  in  one  bird,  that  is,  a  cockerel  may 
be  well  developed  in  shape  and  color  but  at  the  same  time  lacking  in  vigor, 
which  is  essential  for  breeding  stock.  I  try  to  counterbalance  the  poor 
qualities  of  the  male  by  picking  out  hens  which  have  these  qualities  well 
developed,  that  is,  if  the  cock  is  small,  I  would  have  large  hens.  My  idea 
is  to  produce  a  strain  of  single-combed  white  leghorns  which  shall  be  good 
layers,  well  proportioned,  pretty,  healthy  and  vigorous,  and  which  develop 
good-sized  early  broilers. 

As  to  feeding,  I  feed  all  the  fowls  a  ration  to  make  them  large  and 
good  layers  of  large,  white,  chalky  eggs.  To  the  old  stock  I  feed  each 
morning  three  quarts  of  grain,  wheat,  oats,  and  barley  mixed,  for  each 
hundred  fowls.  I  keep  a  dry  mash  before  them  all  the  time  in  a  Cornell 
range  hopper.  This  mash  consists  of  one  hundred  pounds  of  bran, 
one  hundred  pounds  of  middlings,  one  hundred  pounds  oatmeal  mill  by- 
products, ground  corn,  wheat  bran,  middlings,  and  oat  refuse.  Beef  scrap 
is  kept  before  them  all  the  time,  and  I  give  them  fresh  ground  green  bone, 
about  an  ounce  for  each  hen  dally.  During  the  molting  season,  August, 
September,  October,  and  November,  I  add  oO  pounds  of  linseed  oil  meal 
to  the  mash.  This  produces  feathers  and  hurries  them  through  their 
molt.  Green  food  was  supplied  to  them  in  the  summer  in  the  foiins  of 
lawn  clippings,  green  oats,  or  alfalfa.  In  winter  I  used  cut  dried  alfalfa, 
cabbages,  and  other  vegetables. 

The  fowls  run  in  an  orchard  of  apple,  pear,  plum,  cherry,  and  peach 
trees.  I  kept  this  sowed  with  oats  during  the  summer  while  it  was  damp. 
At  night  I  feed  all  the  stock  all  the  mixed  grain  that  they  will  eat  up 
clean,  so  that  their  crops  will  be  full  and  they  can  digest  the  food  while 
they  sleep.  All  the  grain  is  fed  in  litter  to  make  them  work,  because 
exercise  is  necessary  for  vigor  and  egg  production. 


484  APPENDIX  G 

III  taking  care  of  the  fowls  my  work  consisted  of  feeding  and  watering 
them,  cleaning  the  dropping  boards  at  least  three  times  a  week,  going 
over  the  roosts  with  kerosene  oil  every  two  weeks,  and  changing  the  litter 
when  it  was  worn  out  and  dirty.  One  of  the  most  essential  <iualities  of 
a  good  ix)ultry  farm  is  cleanliness,  and  nothing  can  be  done  without  it 
because  the  stock  will  sicken  and  lose  vigor.  So  I  kept  the  houses  and 
yards  as  clean  and  dry  as  possible.  Twice  during  the  summer  I  had  their 
yard  cultivated. 

Our  main  business  is  producing  large,  uniform,  chalky-white  eggs,  and 
that  is  why  we  keep  single-combed  white  leghorns  because  they  lay  an 
abundance  of  such  eggs,  which  is  what  the  New  York  City  market 
demands.  We  are  located  near  the  railway,  and  our  shipments  reach 
their  destination  in  New  York  City  in  twelve  hours. 

In  marketing  all  our  products  we  take  great  care  in  having  them  uniform 
and  clean.  With  the  broilers  we  like  to  have  large  hatches  so  that  there 
will  be  enough  cockei'els  for  a  shipment,  that  is,  about  fifty.  But  with  the 
fowls  we  cannot  be  so  particular,  because  we  sell  them  mainly  to  get  them 
out  of  the  way.  In  selecting  for  market  we  pick  out  the  poor  layers,  small- 
combed,  anaemic,  or  over-fat  fowls,  so  our  fowls  do  not  bring  good  prices 
because  they  are  small  and  not  uniform,  and,  moreover,  we  could  not 
expect  good  prices  for  meat  fowls,  when  that  is  not  our  business.  But  in 
producing  and  marketing  eggs  we  receive  from  2  to  6  cents  a  dozen 
above  market  quotations.  We  keep  the  nests  as  clean  as  pos.'^ible  in  order 
to  keep  the  eggs  white.  The  eggs  are  gathered  three  times  a  day,  and  if 
in  gathering  the  eggs  I  found  a  tinted  egg  I  watched  to  see  which  hen  laid 
the  egg,  and  when  I  found  her  I  marked  her  to  be  killed  when  she  stopped 
laying,  because  we  are  breeding  for  clear  white  eggs.  The  eggs  are  cleaned 
with  a  washing  powder  when  necessary,  but  the  eggs  are  never  rubbed 
hard  because  that  would  remove  the  chalky  appearance  which  denotes 
a  fresh  egg.  The  eggs  are  kept  in  a  cool,  dry  place  before  shipping. 
They  are  not  taken  to  the  station  until  two  hours  before  train  time,  so  as 
to  keep  them  from  getting  heated.  We  never  keep  eggs  over  ten  days 
before  shipping,  either  in  winter  or  summer.  In  fact,  we  try  to  get  them 
on  the  market  as  soon  as  possible  after  they  are  laid,  because  we  have  a 
reputation  with  our  commission  merchant  that  we  ship  only  fresh  eggs 
and  so  he  relies  on  us.  We  try  to  furnish  him  the  best  eggs  that  can  be 
produced  and  so  he  pays  us  from  2  to  5  cents  more  a  dozen  than  market 
quotations.  This  merchant  has  always  been  more  than  square  with  us. 
He  sends  us  egg  cases  free,  except  for  freight  and  cartage,  which  is  2  cents 
a  case,  and  even  pays  return  express  on  our  shipping  crates.  So  we  are 
fully  in  favor  of  commission  merchants,  but  of  course  when  we  can  sell 
direct  to  a  good  reliable  consumer,  we  will  do  so. 


APPENDIX  G  485 

I  keep  myself  posted  on  poultry  by  reading  farm  papers,  among  which 
are :  T%e  Rural  New  Yorker,  Rural  Life,  American  Poultry  Advocate, 
and  Poultry  Success.  I  intend  to  follow  the  poultry  business  for  an 
occupation. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  supplies  which  we  buy  and  an  account  of 
my  summer  work : 

Wheat $  .95-)5  1.10  a  bushel 

Oats 45  a  bushel 

Barley 60  a  bushel 

Bran 1.60  a  hundred  pounds 

Middlings 1.60  a  hundred  pounds 

Stock  feed 1.40-1.50  a  hundred  pounds 

Linseed  meal 1.75  a  hundred  pounds 

Beef  scrap 2.75  a  hundred  pounds 

Green  bones 00|  a  pound 

Gasoline  for  engine 25  a  gallon 

Litter 50  a  hundred  pounds 

In  closing  I  will  say  that  a  daily  record  was  kept  of  the  following : 
Number  of  hours  of  work  and  cost,  Number  of  eggs  laid,  Eggs  shipped, 
Fowls  shipped.  Returns  from  shipments.  Eggs  and  fowls  used  in  the 
house  and  price.  Amount  of  feed  and  green  bone  bought.  Miscellaneous 
expenditures.  Mortality  in  chicks,  etc. 

Every  good  poultry  man  who  wishes  to  succeed  should  keep  an  account 
of  his  poultry  just  as  if  he  were  a  business  man,  which  he  really  is  or 
needs  to  be.  By  doing  so  he  is  enabled  to  see  mistakes  and  avoid  or 
rectify  them. 

In  addition  to  the  equipment  described,  I  might  say  that  we  have  a 
two  horse-power  gasoline  engine,  a  green  bone  cutter,  clover  cutter,  and 
a  water  supply  which  furnishes  water  to  all  the  coops  and  also  provides 
fire  protection.  We  now  have  about  400  head  of  old  stock  which  we  are 
keeping  for  breeding  purposes  next  year. 

During  the  summer  I  had  practically  entire  charge  of  the  poultry  work, 
but  I  have  only  a  third  interest  in  the  business. 


486 


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APPENDIX  H 
SUPPLIES 

The  farm  and  garden  are  the  natural  laboratories  for  agri- 
cultural work,  and  all  work  indoors  should  seek  to  explain  and 
to  interpret  outdoor  problems.  The  value  of  laboratory  work 
in  school  depends  vitally  on  how  it  is  connected  with  real  life. 
It  must  justify  itself,  not  merely  by  the  construction  of  neat 
and  accurate  notebooks  or  by  providing  for  the  actual  handling 
of  farm  materials,  but  by  its  service  to  the  pupils  and  to  the 
community. 

Agriculture  should  be  regarded  as  essentially  an  industrial 
subject,  and  its  study  should  be  approached  largely  from  the 
industrial  side  —  the  side  of  productive  activity. 

Many  of  the  most  valuable  supplies  for  the  successful  teach- 
ing of  Elementary  Agriculture  can  be  obtained  from  the  local 
farms,  or  village  store,  or  they  may  be  made  by  the  pupils 
themselves.  Some  supplies,  however,  cannot  be  secured  in 
this  way,  particularly  if  the  course  is  to  develop  into  an  ex- 
tensive one ;  they  must  be  purchased  from  a  distance. 

The  department  of  public  instruction,  or  the  agricultural 
college  of  many  states,  supplies  its  own  manual  to  the  schools 
free  of  charge.  Helpful  directions  on  various  phases  of  school 
agriculture  have  also  been  published  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture.  These  also  are  free.  A  Unit  of 
Agriculture,  by  Elliff,  published  by  Row,  Peterson  and  Com- 
pany, and  A  Laboratory  Manual  of  Agriculture,  by  Call  and 
Schafer,  published  by  The  Macmillan  Company,  are  both  teach- 
able manuals.  Both  list  the  required  equipment  for  their 
exercises. 

The  few  supplies  needed  for  Elementary  Agriculture  which 

487 


488  APPENDIX  H 

must  1)6  purchased  at  a  distance  can  he  obtained  from  Arthur 
H.  Thomas  Company,  Philadelphia,  or  the  Central  Scientific 
Company,  Chicago. 

A  mass  of  illustrative  material  can   be   obtained   free   of 
charge  from  the  following : 

Foods,  from  the  Postum  Cereal  Company,  Battle  Creek,  Michigan. 
Feeds  aiid  Fertilizers,  from  local  dealers. 

Wheat,  from  the  Washburn-Crosby  Company,  Minneapolis,  Minnesota. 
Silk,  from  Cheney  Bros.,  South  Manchester,  Connecticut. 
Corn,  from  the  Corn  I'roducts  Refining  Company,  New  York  City. 
General  Products  and  Raw  Materials,  from  the  local  College  of  Agricul- 
ture and  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington. 


APPENDIX   I 

FARM  JOURNALS 

Farm  journals  are  very  helpful  in  the  rural  home  as  well  as 
in  the  schoolroom.  There  are  more  than  two  hiindred  different 
farm  publications  in  the  United  States.  In  Minnesota  there 
are  nine ;  in  Pennsylvania,  seven ;  and  nearly  every  state  has 
at  least  one.  Below,  under  A,  is  a  list  of  those  which  have  the 
largest  circulation  in  the  various  states.  Under  ^  is  a  list  of 
farm  papers  which  are  devoted  to  special  lines. 


A.     FARM  JOURNALS 

Pbiok 
PKE  Ye. 

Alabama.     TTie  Progressive  Farmer.     Birmingham $1.00 

Arizona.     Southwestern  Stockman-Farmer.     Phoenix 1.00 

ArJiansas.     Arkansas  Farmer  and  Homestead.     Little  Rock      .     .       .50 

California.     California  Home  and  Farmer.     San  FrancLsco  ...       .50 

Colorado.     The  Great  Divide.     Denver 50 

Connecticut.     New  England  Farms  and  Connecticut  Farmer.    New 

Haven 1.00 

Georgia.     Southern  Buralist.     Atlanta 50 

Idaho.     Idaho  Farmer.     Spokane,  Washington  ..." 60 

Illinois.     Better  Farming.     Chicago 25 

Indiana.     Farm  Life.     Spencer .26 

Iowa.     Successful  Farming.    Des  Moines 25 

Kansas.     Missouri  Valley  Farmer.     Topeka 25 

Kentucky.     The  Inland  Farmer.     Louisville 50 

Louisiana.     Modern  Farming.     New  Orleans 50 

Maine.     Maine  Farmer.     Augusta 1.00 

Maryland.     The  Farmers'  and  Planters'  Guide.     Baltimore      .     .       .25 

Massachusetts.     Farm  and  Home.     Springfield 60 

Michigan.     Gleaner  and  Business  Farmer.     Detroit     .....       .50 

Minnesota.     The  Farmer's  Wife.     St.  Paul 25 

Missouri.     Journal  of  Agriculture.     St.  Louis 50 

489 


490  APPENDIX  I 

Prick 

PER  Yr. 

Montana.     Montana  Farmer.     Great  Falls Sl.OO 

Nebraska.     Dentgch-Amerikan  Farmer.     Lincoln 40 

New  Hainp.shire.     Mirror  and  Farmer.     Manchester 75 

New  York.     The  Rural  New-Yorker.     New  York 1.00 

North   Carolina.     Our    Rural    Home    and    Carriers'   Messenger.       .60 

Winston-Salem .     .       .50 

North  Dakota.     North  Dakota  Farmer.     Lisbon     .     .  ...       .60 

Ohio.     Farm  Xeicn.    Springfield 25 

Oklahoma.     Oklahoma  Farmer- Stockman.    Oklahoma  City       .     .       .60 

Oregon.     Western  Farmer.     Portland 1.00 

Pennsylvania.     The  Farm  Journal.     Philadelphia 60 

South  Dakota.     National  Alfalfa  Journal.     Sioux  Falls 26 

Tennessee.     Southern  Agriculturist.     Knoxville 60 

Texas.     Farm  and  Ranch.     Dallas 1.00 

Virginia.     Southern  Planter.     Richmond 50 

Washington.     Northwest  Farm  and  Orchard.    Spokane 60 

Wisconsin.     Wisconsin  Farmer.     Madison 1.00 

Wyoming.     Wyoming  Stockman- Farmer.    Cheyenne 25 


B.     SPECIAL   PUBLICATIONS 

Bees.     American  Bee  Journal.     Hamilton,  111 1.00 

Cooperation.     The  Cobperator's  Herald.     Fargo,  North  Dakota         1.60 

Dairy.    KimbalVs  Dairy  Farmer.     Waterloo,  Iowa 26 

Farm  Home.     The  American  Home  Weekly.    St.  Paul,  Minn.   .     .      .35 

Forestry.     American  Forestry.     Washington,  D.C 3.00 

Horticulture.     Green's  Fruit  Grower.     Rochester,  N.Y 60 

Live-stock.     The  Breeder's  Gazette.     Chicago,  111 1.00 

Machinery  and  Power.     Farm  Engineering.     Chicago,  111 60 

Poultry.     Reliable  Poultry  Journal.    Quincy,  111 60 


INDEX 


[References  are  to  pages.] 


Aberdeen  Anerus  cattle      .    .  370 

Acidity,  test  for 127 

Adaptability  of  crops  to  soils  23 
Advantages  of  country  life, 

attractiveness 25-29 

natural  beauty 13 

physical  endurance      ....  34 

physical  welfare 26 

variety  of  activities     ....  35 
Affairs  of  the  farm     .     .     .     45-tiO 

Age  of  homespun 19 

Age  of  machinery 19 

Age  of  steam 142 

Agricvdtural     Education 

Monthly 15 

Agricultural  publications     .  59 

Air  pressure  tank 88 

Alabama liM 

Albumen 15G 

Alcohol 235 

Alfalfa, 

as  feed 286-289 

failure  with,  cau.ses     ....  281 

good  seed 174 

history  of 280 

inoculation  for 281 

in  rotation 149 

pigs  feeding  in  (picture)  .     .     .  417 

plant.     . 282 

poor  seed 172 

quantity  of  seed  to  the  acre      .  173 

testing  seed  of 174 

tillage  for 135 

Allies  of  the  farmer   .     .  10,  11,  347 
American      and      European 

farming  compared  ...  67 

American  class  of  poultry     .  428 


American  Review  of  Reviews  454 

Ammonia 115 

Angoumois  grain  moth      .    .  336 

Annual  Aveeds 291 

Anther 162 

Anthracnose  on  beans  .     .     .  213 

Apples 303-3a) 

Apricots 237 

Arbor  day 324 

Arsenate  of  lead 336 

Asiatic  class  of  poultry      .     .  427 

Asparagus 222 

Automobile 80 

Ax 139 

Ayrshire  cattle 374 

Babcock,  Dr.  S.  M 385 

Babcock  milk  test      ...   14,  385 
'•  Back  to  the  farm"  ....      23 

Bacon 63,  422,  455 

Bacon  swine 417 

Bacteria  ...    10,  106.  117,  208,  239 

how  they  multiply 209 

in  milk 390 

their  growth,  how  hindered      .     105 

Bailey,  L.  H 45,  72 

Balanced  ration 363 

Bank  credit 456 

Barley 272,  273 

Beach,  Professor  S.  A.   .     .     .      55 

Beans 117,  226,  227,  238 

Beauty,  uses  of  in  farm  life  .     .      11 

Beef  cattle 367-370 

in  pasture 1^9 

Bee  hives 349 

Bees 166,  348 

Belgian  horses 398 


INDEX 


[R^erencen  are  to  pages.] 


Berkshire  swine 418 

Biennial  weeds 292 

Bioloery 59 

Bird  boxes 318,  350 

Birds 317,  SM 

how  they  have  been  studied     .    ;V51 
Birthplace      of      prominent 

people ;J4 

Blackberries 200,  201 

Black  knot 217 

Blanchingr 237 

Bluestone 214 

'•  Boarders  "  (cattle)     ....    387 

Bone  meal 117 

Bordeaux  mixture     ....    214 

Border  planting 328 

Bottom  lands 105 

Box  method  of  corn  testingr .    256 

Boy  scouts 40 

Bradford,  Governor,  quoted   .    252 

Brahma  poultry 433 

Bran 1<)5,  362,  377 

Breathing  pores  (stomata)  157,  178 

Breazeale,  quoted 231 

Breeding  new  plants     .    .  190-205 

foni 194 

tomatoes 197 

wheat 197 

Brewer,  quoted 25 

Broilers 439 

Brooders 437 

Brood  mares 39{> 

Brood  sows 422 

Broom  making 19 

Buckwheat 166, 271 

Budding 185 

Buds 179 

Bulbs 182 

Bull.  Ephraim  W.   .     .    15)9,  202,  203 

Bulletins 47,  52,  59,  75 

(Also  at  the  end  of  each  chapter.) 

Bumble  bees 166 

Burbank.  Luther 190 

Bush  beans 223 

Business  failures  on  the  farm      73 

Butter (W,  383,  391 

(uittit  for  making 384 

Buttermilk 383 

Cabbage 223,  240 

California 450 


Calyx 162,  346 

Campflre  girls 40 

Canada 272 

Canada  thistle 294 

Candling  eggs 436 

Canning 236 

Capillary  attraction  ...     4,  103 

Capillary  water 103 

loss  of 104 

Capital 447-152 

how  and  where  secured  .  .  .  453 
Carbohydrate  .  118,  156,  a59-363 
Carbon  dioxide  .     102,  113,  114,  132 

Carmen  No.  3 244 

Carriage  horses 400 

Carrots 224 

Cart 139 

Casein 383 

Cattle 366-379 

care  of 378 

feeding 359,  376 

types  of 367,  371 

Cauliflower 225 

Celery 228, 241 

Cells 165 

Census  bureau 17 

Certified  milk 383 

Cheese 391 

Chemistry 58 

Cherries 310 

Chester  white  swine      .     .     .    418 

Cheviot  sheep 413 

Chewers SXi 

Chicken,  the  first 426 

Chickens,  see  Poultry. 

Chicory 299 

Chile  saltpetre 117 

Chlorophyll 157 

Church 70 

Clay 13,  95,  143 

Clover 166, 283 

alsike 285 

crimson 284 

red 283 

sweet 119 

white 284 

Clubs, 

corn  growing 194 

organization  of 229 

pig *23 

poultry 62,  443 


INDEX 


[References  are  to  pages.] 


Clubs  —  continved 

purpose  of 51 

soil  manageineiit 150 

vegetable  growing 221) 

Cochin  poultry 428 

Codling  moth 345-:M7 

Cold  frames 225 

College  extension  service     .      (JO 

Colony  henhouse 438 

Colt 405 

Community  spirit 298 

Companion  cropping     .     .         223 
Compound  microscope     .     .    209 

Concentrates 363 

Concord  grape 198 

Condensed  milk 383 

Conservation 322 

Contests 50 

Conveniences  of  farm  home       77 
Cooperation  45-54,  248,  298,  457,  458 
Cooperative  breeders'  asso- 
ciation   388 

Cooperative  land  banks    .    .    457 

Coopers  hawk ;?52 

Corms 182 

Com, 

bagged 195 

canned 235 

club  work  with   ....      194,  263 

culture  of 259 

dried 234 

ear-to-row  test 257 

festival 52 

improvement 194-196 

in  rotation 149 

judging 260 

kernels  of  (sections)    ....    171 

kinds  of 258 

maturity  of 256 

pistillate  flowers  of     ....     164 

pollen  of 162 

poor  pollination  of 165 

prize 196 

smut  of 216 

staminate  flowers  of    ...     .    162 

stem  of 178 

sweet 223,224 

tassel  of 163 

Cornell  University     .     .    .     47, 55 

Corolla 162 

Correlations    ....     15,  150,  424 


Cots  wold  sheep 411 

Cotton 9,  24,  455 

Cotyledons 172 

Country    and    city     people 

compared 17 

"  Country      Life       Commis- 
sion," quoted 72 

Country  store 454 

County  agent 51, 5<j 

demonstrating 57 

Cover  crops 104,  306 

Cow  peas 279,  2*;,  332 

Cowper,  quoted 16,  221 

Cows  (see  Cattle)      ....       9,  32 

Crab  apple 203 

Craig,  Professor  John    ...      55 

Cream 387, 391 

Creamery 47,  387 

Cream  separators  ....   14,  391 

Credit  unions 461 

Creed  of  country  boy    ...      41 

Criminals 27 

Crop  rotation, 

need  of 146 

reasons  for 148,  210 

Crossbreds 358 

Crosses 9,  192,  199 

Cross-pollination    .     .     .      165,  166 

the  method  of 192 

two  great  ways  of 168 

Crow 352 

Cucumbers 225 

Cultivator 145 

Curing 239 

Currants 235 

Cuttings, 

green 181 

hardwood ^80 

root 181 

Cutworms 340 

Dairy  barn 360,  378 

Dairy  cattle 371-376 

Death  rates 27 

Decrease  in  rate  of  grow^th 

of  rural  population  ...      17 
Demonstrations     .    .     .    .57,  311 

Denmark 48, 62 

Desjardines,  M.,  quoted  .    .    .    461 
Diseases  of 
cattle 378 


INDEX 


[References  are  to  pages.] 


Diseases  of  —  continued 

crops 208 

people 2H 

poultry 431 

Hheep 412 

swine 419 

Ditchiner  machine 107 

Diversified  farmingr    ....    455 
Dodder  (a  parasite)      ....    284 

Dorset  sheep 411 

Draft  horses 308 

Drainage,  open  and  closed    .  106-108 

Drains,  ^rade  of 108 

Dried  blood 117 

Drill »     .   18, 271 

Drudgery  on  the  farm,  28,  71,  77, 78 

Dry  rot 214 

Durum  wheat 268 

Ear  selection  of  corn      .     .     .    253 

Earth,  the  new 1 

Ear-to-row  experiment      .     .    267 
Econoniic  aspect  in  relation 
to 

aesthetics 11-13 

community  spirit 49 

education 47 

machinery 19,  63 

public  highways      ....     81-86 
rights  of  the  child    ....      31-33 

rural  migration 22 

securing  capital 44()-462 

Economics  (rural)  defined .     .      59 
Education  for  the  farm  46,  47 

Egrer  breeds  of  poultry   ...    427 

Egrer  plant 237 

Eggs (»,  440,  441 

Egyptians 8,  139 

Electricity  on  the  farm     .    .      78 

Elms 3, 314 

Embryo 172 

Endive 225 

Endosperm 172 

England 67 

English  sparrows 352 

English  style  of  decorative 

planting 327 

Entomology 341 

Environment 
for  rural  child  rearing     ...      37 
hostile 73 


Evaporated  cream     ....  383 
Excursion     to    agricultural 

college       56 

External  poisons 338 

Fairs  (agricultural) 54 

Farm 

"abandoned" 23 

animals 355 

as  a  nursery :J6 

attractivenes.s  of 25 

blacksmithing  on 28 

brook  (picture) 2 

capital 447 

finance 446 

former  methods  on      .     .  20-22,  447 

garden 221-228 

home  (pictures) 4,  23 

imports  and  exports    ....    451 
influence  on  physical  welfare  .      26 

labor 16,  70 

management 44<>-162 

Farmer,  the  lirst 5-9 

and  nature 1-13 

Farmers'  bulletins    ....      75 
(also  at  end  of  each  chapter) 

Farmers'  hindrances 

lack  of  capital 624 

poor  judgment 73 

shiftlessuess 74 

Fat 369,  376,  383,  385 

Feeding 

cattle 376 

horses 402 

poultry 434 

principles  of 361 

sheep 411 

swine 420 

Feeds 359 

Fennel 295 

Pemow,  quoted 321 

Fertilizers 123-131 

application  of 130 

commercial 124 

complete 124 

cost  of 124 

direct 124 

formulas  of 125 

indirect 124 

Festivals 52 

Fibres 8 


INDEX 


{References  are  to  pages.] 

Fiske,  John,  quoted     ....  34  |  Gold,  Professor,  quoted 

Flail \m 

Flax,  spinning  (picture  of)    .     .  16 

Flower  grarden 3:50 

Flowers KJl 

kinds  of 1(53, 164 

parts  of .  162 

Fly 45,  341 

Fodder 279 

Foliage 338 

Forage  crops 276-289 

kinds  of      .     .          276 

Forces  of  nature 2 

heredity  and  variation     .     .     .  200 

in  improvements 198 

regular  action  of 7 

Forcing  boxes 225 

Foremen 22 

Forestry 322 

Formalin 394 

Fox 10 

Fox  grape lt)9 

France 67 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  quoted    .  4(3 

Frazer,  Professor 182 

Free  water 103 

Proebel,  quoted 38 

Fryers 439 

Fungi 11,  212 

tliseases  due  to 218 

Fungicide 337 

Furnace  (in  cellar) 88 

Furrow 143 


Galloway  cattle 370 

Game  animals 317 

Gapes 431 

Garden 221-228 

Garden  tools 222 

Garfield,  James  A.,  quoted     .      61 

Gasolene  engine 78 

General-purpose    breeds    of 

poultry 428 

Geometrical  style  of  plant- 
ing       330 

Geranium  cutting      ....    180 

Germany 68,  78,  458 

Germ  plasm    ....    167-168,  176 
Gillette,  Professor      ....      33 

Ginseng 68 

Glumes 104 


34 

Goshawk 352 

Government        and        the 

farmer 64 

"  Grades "  of  animals     .    .     .    ;358 

Grafting 184 

cleft 184 

tongue 186 

Grain  elevator 47,  91 

Grange 49 

Grape 198,  19i),  302 

Grasses 278,  279 

Green's  Vegetable  Garden- 
ing       225 

Grover,  Edwin  Osgood      .     .      42 

Ham 422 

Harrow, 

disk 142,  146 

spike-toothed 144 

spring-toothed 144 

Hartsalz 118 

Hay 276-282 

Hay  loader 281 

Hay  tedder 277 

Health,  in  country    .     .     .     .     16, 45 


of  country  children 

Heat 

Heavy  horses  .  . 
Henrys  feed  table 

Herbs 

Heredity      .    .    ,    . 

in  animal  breeding 


37 
105 
398 
362 
327 
7 
356 


in  plant  breeding 200 

Hereford  cattle 368 

Hessian  fly,  work  of    ...    .  336 

High  cost  of  living     ....  65 

"  High  grade  "  animals      .    .  358 

Hills,  Professor  G.  L.      ...  55 
Hogs  (see  Swine) 

Hollyhocks 330 

Holstein-Friesian  cattle     .    .  375 
Home,  country 

(exercises  for,  at  the  end  of 
each  chapter) 

as  a  nursery 36 

the  main  object  of  farming      .  61 

work  at  the 39,446 

Homestead  Law 58 

Honey 348 

Horse  barn 396 


INDEX 


[References 

Horses :{<l5-408 

breeds  of 398-400 

care  of 7    .     .     .    401 

cleaning 402 

feeding 402 

types  of .'{JXi 

Hotbeds 225 

Hot-house  lambs 412 

House  fly 45,  AW 

Household  conveniences  .    .      87 

Housewife 87,  235 

Howard,  Dr.  L.  O .341 

Hugrhes,  H.  D 254 

Human  nature,  a  knowledge 

of 75 

Humus 100,  268,  30() 

Hybrids 204 

Ice  cream 392 

Ichneumon  flies 317 

Illinois 78 

Immigrrant  farmers    ....  70 

Imperfect  flow^ers      ....  165 
Improvement, 

animals 355-359;  428 

plants 7-9,  190-205 

Increase  of  city  population 

rate 17 

Incubation 

artificial 43(5 

natural 433 

Indiana 18,  377 

Indian  corn 252 

Inoculation  of  soil      ....  281 

Insect  breeding' 353 

Insecticides 33() 

Insects .-m-aso 

method  of  control 149 

method  of  mounting    ....  335 

two  great  classes  of     ...     .  334 

Internal  poisons 336 

Intemodes          178 

Irrigation 108 

Irving,  Washington,  quoted   .  25 
Italian  style   of  decorative 

planting 3;» 

Jackson,  Helen  Hunt     ...      13 
Jefferson,  Thomas     ....    1^^ 

Jelly  making 2:12-2.36 

Joe  pye  weed 291 


are  to  pnr/en.] 

Johanna  Rue  .... 
"  Johnny  Appleseed  " 
Jones,  L.  B.  ... 


375 

308 

55 


Kainit 118 

Kale 1 15,  225 

Kansas      Experiment      Sta- 
tion      420 

Kentucky  blue  grass  280,  :«2 

Kerosene  emulsion    ....  XiH 

King,  D.  W 8<) 

King,  F.  H 401 

Kitchen,  country 88 

<;anning  in       2:^1 

Kohlrabi 225 

Labor-saving  devices    .    .    .  Ki 
Lady  Eglantine      .     .     .      ;«7,  426 

Lambs 412,413 

Lancaster  county I'A 

Land  banks     ...         ...  457 

Landlords 

duties  of 70 

increase  of 449 

Landscape  gardening   .     .  .325-3:53 

Langshan  poultry      ....  428 

Lard  swine 418 

Lawn 331 

Layering 184 

Leaf 

net-veined       172 

parallel-veined 172 

Leghorn  poultry 427 

Leicester  sheep                   .    .  411 

Lettuce 224 

Lice 4,31 

Light  horses 399 

Lime, 

experiments  with 129 

functions  of 127 

kiln 126 

preparing  stone 128 

slaked    .     .         129 

source  of 98 

spreading 138 

stone 128 

Lime  and  sulfur  wash   .    .     .  3.39 

Lincoln  sheep 411 

Litmus  paper  test      ....  127 

Live  stock  judging    ....  366 

Loam 101 


INDEX 


[References 

Longrfellow,  quoted      ....    350 
Long  wool  sheep 411 

Mac  Adam,  John    .     .     •     .    .  82 

Macadam  road 85 

Macaroni  wheat 268 

Machinery  of  the  farm, 

as  to  conveniences 77 

as  to  population      ....     19,  (53 

cooperative  buying  of      ...  48 

development  of 139 

drudgery  relieved  by  .     .     .     28,  71 

improvements  in     .     .     .         .  9 

tillage  by 139 

Maize 252 

Manure, 

amount  recovered  in        .     .    .  127 

as  a  by-product 307 

as  a  complete  fertilizer    .     .     .  126 

as  a  direct  fertilizer    ....  126 

barnyard 125 

care  of    ...     • 125 

composition  of 126 

green 126 

in  flower  garden 331 

in  hotbed 226 

in  rotation 149 

spreading  of 123 

Maps,  township 90 

Market  (picture  of)       ....  15 
Marketing, 

by  boat  and  rail 62,  63 

fruit  ...         307 

potatoes 248 

poultry 439 

Maryland 147 

Massachusetts 108,  190 

May  Bilma 357 

McCormick.  Cyrus  H.    .     .     .  20 
McKeever,  William  A.'  .    •.     31,  39 

Meadow 1, 278 

Measurements   of   children 

compared 33 

Meat  breeds  of  poultry      .    .  427 
Mediterranean  class  of  povil- 

try 427 

Medium  wool  sheep  ....  410 

Mendel,  Gregor 204 

Merino  sheep 411,412 

Microscope,  compound     .     .     .  209 

Middlemen 67 


are  to  pages.] 

Migration,  rural       23 

Mildews 213 

Milk 382-392 

care  of 66,  389 

composition  of 383 

definitions 383 

quality  of 385 

quantity  of 384 

testing 382 

value  of 387 

Milk  fat 376,385-389 

Milk  pails 382 

Milk  sugar 382 

Milk-testing  associations  .    .  388 

Milkweed 295 

Millet KiO,  286 

Mill,  John  Stuart 69 

Minnesota 272 

Minorca  poultry 427 

Models  of 

poultry  houses 444 

road  building 85 

Molds 218,  233 

Montana 272 

Mortgage         455 

Mosquitoes 340 

Moth  mullein 294 

Motor  pow^er 77 

Mulch, 

function  of 104 

how  made 104 

Mules 401 

Musk  melon 225 


Nature, 

her  tools 5 

improvements  on 7 

in  breeding 198 

in  city  (picture  of) 12 

our  trust  in 7 

Nile  (picture) 8 

Nitrate  of  soda 117 

Nitrates 116 

Nitrogen      .     .     .      115-117,  119,  282 

Nodes 178 

Nodules 116,  290 

North  Dakota .'«,  455 

Norway  spruce 318 

Nucleus 155 

Nutritive  ratio 361 


INDEX 


[Beferencea  are  to  pages.] 


Oak 313 

Oats 271 

in  rotation 149 

Oat  smut, 

cause  of 215 

loss,  due  to 215 

Ohio 18,272 

on 195 

One-crop  system,  evils  of  .    .  455 

Onions 223, 240 

Orchard 12,  :i0(>-311 

management  of 306 

planting  of 303 

securing  the  stock  for      .     .    .  302 

the  site  of 301 

Ornamental  plants    ....  323 

Orpingrton  poultry      ....  429 
Overhead  system  of  irrl(;a- 

tion 109 

Ovules 1H3 

Parcel  post 80 

shipping  eggs  by 441 

Paris  grreen 227, 336 

Parsley 226 

Parsnips 224 

Pasteurized  milk 383 

Pasture 278 

Peaches  .     186,  211,  236.  3a3,  305,  310 

Peach  rot 211 

Pears 161,  303,  309 

Pear  stem 176 

Peas 205,238 

Petisant  farmers     .    .     68, 458-460 

Pedig'ree 358 

Pennsylvania, 

lime  experiment 129 

manufacturing 19, 20 

milk  yield  ...;....    .376 

Pepper 225 

Percheron  horses  .....    398 
Perennial  weeds     .....    292 

Petal 162 

Petri  dish 225 

Pets 37 

Phenolphthalein 290 

Phosphoric  acid      .    .     .      117,  246 

Phosphorus 117,  119 

Physics 59 

Pictures  for  co\intry  life  .    .      43 
Piercers 325 


Pier  raisingr 420 

Pigs  —  see  Swine 

Pigweed 296 

PistiUate  flowers 164 

Pith 178 

Planker 146 

Plantain 297 

Plant  diseases 208 

Plant  food, 

amount  of,  in  soil 119 

available 120 

elements  in 114 

how  secured 112 

Plantings  as  a  framed  pictvire  328 
Plants, 

as  factories 158 

as  storehouses 156 

ornamental 325 

Play 38 

Plow, 

bull 139 

disk 140 

gang 9 

moldboard      .......  140 

spaulding 141 

traction 9,  142 

Plowing, 

ancient 8 

depth  of 142 

fall 143 

spring 143 

with  oxen 18 

with  tractor .  142 

Plum 310 

Plum  rot 210 

Plumule 172 

Plunkett,  Sir  Horace     .    .  49,  460 

Plymouth  Rock  poultry    .     .  429 

Poland  China  swine  .    .    .    .  418 

Pollen  ■ 162, 163 

Population 17 

per  square  mile 69 

Potash 118,  119 

Potassium 118 

Potato 243-248 

blight 214 

Burbank 191 

cultivation  of 247 

flowers  and  seed  balls  of     .    .  168 

harvesting 6.-5,248 

in  rotation 149 


INDEX 


9 


[References 

Potato  —  continued 

marketing 248 

scab 217 

selection  of  seed 245 

soil  for 246 

storinR 240,  248 

varieties  of 244 

Potato  beetle 337 

Potato- vine  borer 340 

Poultry 425-442 

breeds  of 427-430 

diseases  of 431 

feed 434 

finishing 439 

housing 430 

marketing 439 

project 443 

raising  of 432 

types  of 426 

Poultry  houses  .     .     .  436,  438,  440 

Poultry  show 441 

Preserves 239 

Principles  as  farm  tools  .  .  5-9 
Prizes  for  home  Tvork  ...  52 
Profits  in  relation  to  capital      452 

Projects 51 

baby  beef 379 

bean 227 

colt 406 

corn 263 

flower-growing 333 

fruit  tree 311 

pig 423 

poultry 442 

soil  management 150 

Propagation, 
asexual  ....      168,  179-187,  204 

sexual 168 

Protein    ....      118, 156,  359-363 

Pruning 304,  307 

Pumpkin 225 

Pure-bred  animals  ....  358 
Pustules  of  smut 215 

Quack  grass 10,  297 

Quartz 96 

Radicle 172 

Radishes 224 

Rag  doll  test  for  com    .     .    .  254 

Ragweed .  292 


are  to  pages.] 

Raiffeisen 468 

Railroads 23, 450 

Rake 137 

Rape,    sheep    feeding    in    (pic- 
ture)        .     .    415 

Raspberries 235 

Reaper 63 

"  Record  sheet "  for  milk    .    .    384 

Red  top 278 

Rennet 392 

Renter, 

cash 452 

share 452 

Reproduction, 

asexual 179-187 

sexual 171-175 

Reversion 202,  203 

Rhubarb 226 

Road  horses 399 

Roads 81 

construction  of 84 

economy  of 84 

effect    of    broad    and    narrow 

tires  on 86,  87 

history  of 81 

maintenance  of 86 

Roasters 439 

Roberts,  Professor,  quoted      .    123 

Roller 146 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  quoted        61 

Root  excretions 148 

Root  hairs 112,  178 

Roots, 

function  of 99,  112 

structure  of 178 

Rootstocks 183 

Rope-splicing  (picture)  ...  42 
Rose  cuttings  ....  181,331 
Rotation  of  crops  ....  146-149 

Roughages 363 

Roup 431 

Runners 183 

Rural  betterment, 

aptitudes  for 23 

community  spirit  a  factor    .     .      49 

leadership  for 53 

the  facts  needed 30 

Rural  credits 460 

Rural  mail  service     .     .     .    .79 

Rural  New  Yorker 244 

Russia 268 


10 


INDEX 


[References 

Rust 216 

Bye 273 

in  rotation 14i) 

Salsify 225 

Sand 1)6 

Sanitation, 

for  ilean  milk 390 

in  fly  control 46 

in  house  management  ...  88 
San  Jose  scale    .     .11,  ;«)7,  343,  344 

Scab 217 

Scale  parasites 347 

School  exercises, 
(at  end  of  each  chapter) 

in  pruning,  picture  of  .  .  .  .  53 
School  garden  ....  137,  229 
Scientific  farming  .  .  57,  361,  451 
Scion  and  stock  .  .  .  184,  186 
Score  cards, 

corn 261 

dairy  cattle 380 

horses 407 

Scythe 139 

Seed, 

alfalfa 172,  174 

amount  sown 226 

barley 272 

buckwheat 271 

corn 252 

cowpeas. 287 

depth  to  plant 175 

Kentucky  blue  grass   ....  280 

millet 160 

needs  of 173 

oat 269 

origin  of 161 

planting 175 

red  clover 283 

reproduction  by 171 

rye 273 

soybean 286 

testing 173,  225,  229 

timothy 279 

wheat 265 

Seedling 174,  321 

Selection, 

corn 253 

dairy  cattle 387 

forest  trees 319 

horses 397 


are  to  par/es.] 

Selection  —  continued 

potatoes 245 

poultry        430 

principles  of 355-359 

Sharp-shinned  hawk      .    .    .    ;{52 

Sheep 409-416 

breeds  of 411 

care  of 412 

feeding 411,  415 

types  of 410 

Shipping  by 

boat 63 

parcel  post 441 

rail 62 

Shire  horses 399 

Shorts 420,422 

Shot-hole  borer 342 

Shot-hole  fungus 212 

Short-horn  cattle 368 

Shows, 

corn 264 

poultiy 441 

Shropshire 411 

Shrubbery 327 

Sickle 139 

"Signs" 7 

Silage 286 

feeding  of 289 

Silt 96 

Skim  milk 383,  3J>2 

Small  grains 2*55-275 

Smith,  Adam 447 

Smith-Lever  bill 56 

Smut, 

corn 216 

oats 215 

Snakes 10 

Social  aspects  of  farm  life, 
boy      scouts      and      campfire 

girls 40 

clubs 51 

conveniences    which    promote 

the 77-81 

fairs 54 

festivals 52 

organized  play 38 

Soil 93-151 

analysis  of 131 

as  source  of  life 93 

composition  of    .      101-105,  114-120 
defined 94 


INDEX 


n 


[References 

Soil  —  continued 

exhaustion 147 

fertility 130,  1^5,  447 

management  of 134-141 

origin  of, 

decomposition 100 

disintegration !(8 

productive  .         102 

structure  of  (arrangement  of 
particles), 

tillage 135-146 

tilth 113 

texture  of  (size  of  particles), 

clay 95 

gravel 90 

sand 96 

silt 96 

stone 96 

water, 

capillary 103, 104 

free 103-106 

Soilingr  crops 285 

Soybeans 286 

Spade 139 

Spinach 237 

Split  log  drag 85 

Spores      ....     210,  211,  213,  215 

Sports 199 

Sprayer 335 

Spraying 334 

Squash 225 

Stallion    ........  400-402 

Stamen 162 

Staminate  flo-wrers      ....    163 

Starch 156 

Stems 176 

Sterilizing 233,  383 

Stigma 162 

Stock 355 

grading  up 357 

how  improved      ......    356 

Stolons 183 

Stone  crusher 82 

Stover 276 

Straw^berries 183 

Style 162,  1(54 

Subsoil 143 

Successful  farming    ....      64 

Suckers 184 

Sugar  beet 24 

Superstitions 7 


are  to  pages .^ 

Svjeet  potatoes 249 

Swine 41<>-423 

breeds  of 417,418 

care  of 419 

feeding 417,420 

types  of 416 

Sy'lvinit 118 

Symbiosis 283 

Tablet  at  Union  Station     .     .      35 

Tamworth 418 

Tankage 117 

Taxes,  inequality  of 450 

Telephone 78 

Tenants 69,  74,  449 

Tenant  system,  dangers  of  .     .      69 

Tennyson,  quoted 77 

Tent  caterpillars 340 

Threshing  wheat    .     .     .      139,  266 
Thrush  (disease  of  horses)     .     .    402 

Tillage 135 

implements  of 139 

value  of 136,293 

Tilth 113,  144 

Timber  trees, 313 

direct  value  of 314 

indirect  value  of 3lS 

Timothy, 

seed  of 279 

value  of 280 

variation  in  the  heads  of      .     .        6 

when  planted 149,  284 

Toads,  value  of 339 

Tomatoes 197,223,236 

Tractor 18 

Transportation 450 

Trolley 80 

Truck  gardening 145 

True,  A.  C 55 

Tubercles  on  legumes   .      115,  290 

Tubers 167,  182,  244 

Tumble  grass 298 

Turnips 224 

Turnpikes 82 

Union  Station,  Washington      .      35 
United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture, 
bulletins  (at  end  of  each  chap- 
ter) 
employees  in 56 


12 


INDEX 


[References 
United  States  Department  of 
Ag^iiculture  —  continued 

in  project  work 229 

inyestigations  in  breeding    .    .  273 

investigations  in  labor  income  .  48 

publications  of 59 

secretary  of 54 

Vacutun  cleaners 78 

Valgrren.  Professor     ....      48 

Van  Hise,  quoted 323 

Van  Slyke 383 

Variation     .    .    .    .    .    .  6,  193, 200 

Variety  test, 

com 257 

wheat 268 

Veeretables     .     .  .    .  71, 221 

Ventilation  in 

bam 401 

house 88 

Vermont 18 

Vetch 286 

Vines 327 

Wag'on  horses 400 

Waid,  Professor 108 

Walnut  caterpillars  ....  341 
Washingrton,  George,  quoted  45 
Water, 

in  .soil 102-111 

running,  in  house 88 

Water  table 105 

Waufirh,  Professor  .  .55,331 
Webster,  Daniel 141 


are  to  pages.] 

Weeds 291-299 

controlled  by 

chemicals 293 

cutting  and  pulling  ....    293 
rotation  of  crops  ....  149,  293 

smothering 293 

summer  fallowing    ....    294 

tillage 137 

cooperation  in  control  of      .    .    298 

kinds  of 291, 292 

project  work  on  .     .     .     .     .     .    299 

Welsman,  Augrust 167 

Wheat 6,  21,  72,  265 

culture  of 268 

elevators  for 91 

harvesting 64,  270 

improvements  of 197 

in  rotation 149 

production  of 21 

seedlings  of 112, 175 

selection  of  seed  of 267 

types  of 267 

Whey 383 

Wind  breaks 317 

Windmills .     .      78 

Wood 177,  313-323 

Wood  lot 321 

Woodpecker 351 

Wordsworth,  quoted  ....        1 

Work 27,  32,  39 

Wyandotte  povdtry   ....    429 

Yeast 233 

Yorkshire  s'wine 417 

Zinnias 332 


^ 


i^         ci 


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